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VIRGINIA  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 
EDUCATION  COMMISSION 
SURVEY  AND  REPORT 


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Virginia  Public  Schools 
Education  Commission's  Report 

to  the 

Assembly  of  Virginia 


Survey  Staff's  Report 
to  the  Education  Commission 


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RICHMOND,  VA. 

Everett  Waddey  Company 

1919. 


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VIRGINIA  EDUCATION  COMMISSION 


State  Superintendent  Harris  Hart,  President. 

Hon.  Franklin  Williams,  Secretary. 
Senator  C.  O'Conor  Goolrick. 
Senator  G.  Walter  Mapp. 
Hon.  Charles  H.  Rolston. 
Professor  Charles  G.  Maphis. 
Miss  Bessie  Taylor. 
Superintendent  Blake  T.  Newton. 


THE  SURVEY  STAFF 


DIRECTOR 
Dr.  Alexander  J.  Inglis,  Harvard  University. 

DIVISION   SPECIALISTS 

Dr.  M.  E.  H\ggerty,  University  of  Minnesota,  in  charge  of  the  Divi- 
sion of  Tests. 
Mr.  G.  A.  Mirick,  Harvard  University. 
Dr.  W.  E.  Johnson,  State  College  of  South  Dakota. 
Dr.  F.  S.  Breed,  University  of  Chicago. 

Mr.  Jackson  Davis,  Field  Agent  of  the  General  Education  Board. 
Dr.  M.  E.  Noonan,  Harris  Teachers'  College. 
Mrs.  C.  E.  Fleming,  Wisconsin  State  Department  of  Education. 
Dr.  L.  H.  Ziegler,  University  of  Minnesota. 
Mr.  E.  H.  Huddleston,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  Uniservity. 
Dr.  M.  E.  Brydon,  Virginia  State  Department  of  Health. 


-±  * 


4  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

SPECIAL,  COLLABORATORS   A.ND  MEMBERS   OF  FIELD   STAFF 

■ 

Prof.  J.  E.  Avent,  Radford  State  Normal  School. 

Dr.  D.  B.  Bryan,  Richmond  College. 

Prof.  A.  B.  Chandler,  Jr.,  Fredericksburg  State  Normal  School. 

Prof.  W.  D.  Coggin,  Radford  State  Normal  School. 

Mr.  S.  P.  Duke,  State  Supervisor  of  High  Schools. 

Mr.  T.  D.  Eason,  State  Supervisor  of  Agriculture. 

Principal  J.  M.  Gandy,  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute. 

Prof.  J.  R.  Geiger,  College  of  William  and  Mary. 

Mr.  J.  N.  Hillman,  State  Supervisor  of  Teacher- Training. 

Mr.  W.  T.  Hodges,  State  Supervisor  of  Rural  Schools. 

Dr.  H.  G.  Hotz,  College  of  William  and  Mary. 

Mr.  R.  V.  Long,  State  Supervisor  of  Industrial  Education. 

Prof.  J.  L.  Manahan,  University  of  Virginia. 

Prof.  C.  G.  Maphis,  University  of  Virginia. 

Principal  F.  D.  Morton,  Manassas  Industrial  Institute. 

Prof.  M.  D.  Pierce,  Farmville  State  Normal  School. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Sanger,  Harrisonburg  State  Normal  School. 

Prof.  G.  T.  Somers,  Farmville  State  Normal  School. 

Prof.  W.  F.  Tydeman,  Farmville  State  Normal  School. 

Professor  B.  Y.  Tynor,  Fredericksburg  State  Normal  School. 

Mr.  E.  E.  Worrell,  State  Rural  Supervisor. 

Mr.  A.  D.  Wright,  State  Supervisor  of  Colored  Schools. 

SPECIAL   CONSULTANTS  AND  ADVISORS 

Dr.  J.  H.  Dellard,  President  of  the  Jeanes  and  Slater  Funds.   (Negro 
Education). 

Prof.   P.   H.   Hanus,   Harvard   University.      (Educational   Adminis- 
tration. ) 

Dr.  T.  J.  Jones,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C.     (Negro 
Education.) 

Dr.  L.  M.  Terman,  Leland  Stanford  University.     (Tests  and  Meas- 
urements. ) 

Dr.  G.  P.  Phoenix,  Hampton  Institute.    (Negro  Education.) 
Dr.   W.   R.   Smithey,    Secretary   of  the   State   Board  of  Education. 
(Statistics.) 

Dr.  E.  G.  Williams,  State  Health  Commissioner.     (School  Hygiene 
and  Physical  Education. ) 

Mr.  W.  T.  B.  Williams,  Field  Agent  of  the    Jeanes  Fund.     (Negro 
Education.) 

Dr.  R.  M.  Yerkes,  National  Research  Council.     (Tests  and  Meas- 
urements. ) 


INDEX 


Report  of  the  Educational  Commission 

Page 

1  Summary  of  Recommendations 7 

2  Outline  of  Changes  Proposed 10 

3  Introductory  Statement 11 

4  Organization  of  Survey  Staff 13 

5  Report  of  Fleld  Work 14 

6  Constitutional  Amendments  Proposed 18 

7  State  Board  of  Education 19 

8  The  Superintendent  of  Public  instruction 18 

9  Duties  of  State  Board  of  Education 19 

10  The  County  Unit 20 

1 1  Distribution  of  School  Funds 22 

12  Local  School  Funds 22 

13  Compulsory  Attendance 23 

14  Summary  of  Constitutional  Amendments 23 

15  Amendments  and  Changes  in  Statutes 27 

16  The  School  Term 27 

17  The  Age  of  Attendance 28 

18  The  School  Census 28 

19  Text  Books  and  Supplies 29 

20  Teachers'  Salaries 31 

21  The  Training  of  Teachers 35 

22  High  Schools 37 

23  Vocational  Education 39 

24  Physical  Training,  School  Sanitation 40 

25  The  Education  of  Negroes 41 

26  Rural  Schools 42 

27  DmsioN  Superintendents 44 

28  Financial  Support 46 

29  Distribution  of  School  Funds 49 

30  Local  School  Budget 50 

31  Property  Valuation  for  Assessment 50 

32  Other  Amendments 50 

33  Financial  Statement  of  Commission 52 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Report  of  The  Survey  Staff 

Page 

CHAPTER  I. — Problems  and  Needs  of  Education  in  Virginia 53 

CHAPTER  II.— The  School  Term  in  Virginia 62 

CHAPTER  III.— School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance.  66 

CHAPTER  IV.— The  Progress  of  Pupils  in  the  Schools 79 

CHAPTER  V.— The  Elementary  School  Program 96 

CHAPTER  VI.— The  Results  of  Instruction  Measured 112 

CHAPTER  VII.— The  Teaching  Force  in  Virginia 133 

CHAPTER  VIII.— The  Training  of  Teachers 149 

CHAPTER  IX.— The  Certification  of  Teachers 162 

CHAPTER  X.— Secondary  Education 171 

CHAPTER  XL— Practical  Arts  Education 178 

CHAPTER  XII.— School  Hygiene  and  Health  Education. . '. 187 

CHAPTER  XIII.— Negro  Education  in  Virginia 197 

CHAPTER  XIV.— The    Supervision    of    Instruction    in    Rural 

Schools 211 

CHAPTER  XV.— The  Small  School  and  School  Consolidation. ...  217 

CHPATER  XVI.— School  Organization 225 

CHAPTER  XVII.— School  Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment. . .  232 

CHAPTER  XVIII.— State  Organization  and  Administration 242 

CHAPTER  XIX.— School  Administration  in  County  and  District  251 

CHAPTER  XX.— City  School  Administration 263 

CHAPTER  XXL— Financial  Support 270 

APPENDIX  A.— Tables 287 


SUMMARY  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS 


CONSTITUTIONAL  AMENDMENTS 

1.  To  provide  for  a  State  Board  of  Education  to  be  appointed  by  the 

Governor. 
Amend: 
Constitution  Section  130. 
Code,  1918,  Section  596 ;  597 ;  598 ;  599 ;  600. 
Reference  Commission  Report  I,  1. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  18,  1. 

2.  To  provide  that  the  State  Superintendent  be  appointed  by  the 

State  Board  of  Education.     His  selection  to  be   determined 

without  reference  to  place  of  residence. 

Constitution,   Section   131. 

Code,  1918,  Sections  596;  597;  598;  600;  621;  623. 

Commission  Report  I,  2. 

Survey  Report,  Chapter  18,  2. 

3.  To  provide  that  division  school  superintendents  be  elected  by 

local  school  boards  from  a  list  of  eligibles  prepared  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education. 
Amend: 
Constitution,  Section  132,  Articles  1  and  3. 
Code,  1916,  Section  605 ;  624. 
Commission  Report  I,  3. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XIX,  4. 

4.  To  provide  that  the  county,  city  or  town  rather  than  the  district 

be  the  unit  of  school  administration,  and  that  the  school  affairs 
of  such  unit  be  under  the  general  control  of  a  school  board  to  be 
elected  by  the  qualified  voters  thereof,  and  that  the  present 
trustee  electoral  board,  district  school  board,  and  county 
school  board  be  abolished. 
Amend : 
Constitution,  Section  133,  to  be  repealed. 

Code,  1918,  Sections  629,  630,  631,  632,  633,  634,  635,  636,  638, 
639,  640,  641,  642,  651,  652,  653,  654,  655,  656,  657,  658,  659,  660, 
661,  662,  663,  664,  665,  666,  667,  668,  669,  670,  680,  681,  727,  776, 
780,  all  the  foregoing  to  be  repealed. 

Sections  645,  646,  647,  649,  650,  671,  672,  673,  677,  678,  690,  691, 
694,  701,  705,  706,  707,  708,  714,  719,  720,  721,  726,  728,  729,  730, 
732,  733,  736,  739  (3),  741,  744,  747,  748,  750,  751,  752,  754,  (757- 
764),  (765-773),  777,  786,  to  be  amended. 
Commission  Report  I,  4. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XIX,  5. 

5.  To  provide  for  a  wise  and  just  manner  of  distributing  the  State 

school  funds  and  to  change  the  age  of  school  attendance. 
Constitution,   Section  135. 
Code,  1918,  Section  719,  746. 
Commission  Report,  I,  5. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XXI,  4. 


8  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

6.  To  provide  for  local  tax  for  school  purposes   and  to  remove  the 

limit  of  five  mills  from  the   Constitution   and  fix  a  limit  to  be 
determined  by  law. 
Amend : 

Constitution,   Section   136. 
Code,  1918,  Section  739.  740. 
Commission  Report  I,  6. 
Survey  Report  XXI,  3B. 

7.  To    remove    the    constitutional    limitations    on    the    compulsory 

attendance  law. 
Amend : 

Constitution,  Section  138  to  be  amended. 
Code,   1918,  Section  722. 
Commission  Report  I,  7. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  III,  3,  4. 

AMENDMENTS  TO  STATUTES 

1.  To  provide  a  standard  school  term  of  nine  months  for  elementary 

and  high  school  grades. 
Amend : 

Code,  1918,  Section  669,  705. 
Commission  Report  II,  1. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  II. 

2.  To  fix  the  age  of  school  attendance  at  from  6  to  18  years,  inc[usive. 
Amend: 

Code,   1918,  Section  719. 
Commission  Report  II,  2. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  III,  1. 

3.  To  provide  for  an  accurate   school  census  in  1920  and  for  every 

five   years   thereafter   and   for   a    cumulative   census  for  each 

intervening  year. 

Code,  1918,  Section  653,  654. 

Commission  Report  II,  3. 

Survey  Report,  Chapter  III,  1. 

4.  To  provide  that  State  owned  text  books  be  furnished  to  pupils. 

Code,  1918,  Section  725;  Acts,  1916,  page  714. 
Commission  Report  II,  4. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  V,  3. 

5.  To  increase  the  fund  for  teachers'  salaries  by  increasing  the  State 

tax  from  fourteen  to  twenty  cents   and   to  provide  a  standard 
salary  based  on  minimum  professional  qualifications. 
Amend: 

Acts,  1918,  page  569. 

Commission  Report,  II,  5. 

Survey  Report,  Chapter  VII,  Chapter  XXI. 

6.  To  provide  that  the   State  normal  schools  for  the  training  of 

teachers  be  placed  under  the  control  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education. 
Amend : 
Code,  1918,  Section  940,  Acts,  1914,  page  567,  to  repeal. 
Code,  1918,  Section  948,  949,  950;  to  repeal. 


Summary  of  Recommendations  9 

To  provide  that  the  course  of  training  for  teachers  of  elementary 
schools  at  the  normal  schools  for  white  women  be  extended  from 
two  to  three  years  and  that  high  school  courses  now  offered  at 
these  institutions  be  abolished. 
Commission  Report  II,  6. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  VIII. 

7.  To  provide  that  normal  training  departments  in  high  schools  be 

abolished. 

Code,  1918,  Section  709,  710,  711,  712;  repeal. 

Commission  Report  II,  6. 

Survey  Report,  Chapter  VIII,  3. 

8.  A  recommendation  that  State  institutions  of  higher  learning  be 

operated  upon  an  all  year  basis  with  special  provision  in  the 
summer  quarter  for  teachers  in  the  public  schools. 
Commission  Report  II,  6. 

9.  To  provide  for  an  efficient  system  of  high  schools  without  retard- 

ing the  development  of  the  elementary  schools  and  recommend- 
ing an  appropriation  therefor. 
Amend: 
Code,  1918,  Section  705,  706,  707,  808,  739  (1). 
Commission  Report  II,  7. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  10. 

10.  To   provide   for   the   development    of   vocational   education   and 

recommending   a   special    appropriation    for    training   in   home 
economics. 
Amend : 
Acts,  1918,  page  131. 
Commission  Report  II,  8. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XI. 

11.  To  provide  for  physical  training  in  the  schools,  and  for  the  proper 

supervision  of  school  and  community  sanitation. 
Commission  Report,  II,  9. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XII. 

12.  To  provide  for  the  development  of  the  education  of  negroes. 

Commission  Report  II,  10. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XIII. 

13.  To  provide  for  the  proper  organization  and  development  of  the 

small  rural  schools. 
Commission  Report  II,  11. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XV. 

14.  To  provide  for  the  salary  of  the  division  superintendent  of  schools 

on  a  fair  and  equitable  basis. 
Amend : 

Code,  Section,  606,  626,  748. 
Commission  Report  II,  12. 
Survey  Report,  Chapter  XIV. 

15.  To   provide    adequate    financial    support    for    the    public    school 

system. 
Amend : 

Constitution,  Section  135,  136. 

Code,  1918,  739  (1),  740,  750,  781  (repeal),  782. 

Commission  Report  II,  14. 

Survey  Report,  Chapter  XXI. 

16.  Other  Amendments. 


10 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


PARTIAL  OUTLINE  OF  CHANGES  PROPOSED 

STATE  ADMINISTRATION 


Present  Law  Proposed  Law 

State  Board 

Three   members    elected   by   the      Appointed  by  the  Governor. 

people. 
Three  members  appointed  by  the 

Senate. 
Two    members    elected    by    the 

above  six. 

State  Superintendent 


Elected  by  the  people. 

Member  of  the  State  Board  and 

President,  the  Board  fixing  his 

duties. 


Appointed  by  the  State  Board  as 
its  administrative  officer.  Not 
a  member  of  the  Board. 


LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION 


Trustee  Electoral  Board. 

District  School  Board. 

County  School  Board. 

District  unit  of  administration, 
trustees  of  which  appointed  by 
trustee  electoral  board  which 
also  acts  as  board  of  appeal  on 
the  acts  of  its  own  appointees. 

498  school  districts  with  1,499 
school  trustees  and  300  mem- 
bers of  trustee  electoral  boards. 

People  have  no  direct  partici- 
pation. Members  of  district 
board  receive  $10.00  per  year. 


City,  county  or  town,  if  separate 
division,  unit  of  administration. 

City  school  board  of  five  members 
elected     from     city     at     large. 

County  board  of  one  member  from 
each  magisterial  district  elected 
by  qualified  voters.  Members 
to  receive  reasonable  per  diem. 


Division  Superintendents 


Appointed  by  State  Board. 
Chairman  of  County  Board. 
Member     of     Trustee     Electoral 
Board. 


Appointed  by  local  board  from 
list  of  eligibles  prepared  by 
State  Board.  Not  a  member  of 
local  board,  but  its  adminis- 
trative officer. 


School  Funds 


State  Funds. 

District  Funds. 

County  or  City  Funds. 

Other  Funds. 

Separate  accounting  of  each. 


State  Funds. 

County  and  City  or  Town  Funds. 

Definite  budget. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission 

SINCE  the  adoption  of  the  present  State  Constitution,  at 
virtually  every  session  of  the  Assembly  of  Virginia,  school 
legislation  has  been  urged  and  passed.  The  Constitution  itself 
is  not  limited  to  general  principles  in  dealing  with  public 
education,  but  makes  many  detailed  provisions,  and  in  large 
part  it  is  responsible  for  a  complex  and  awkward  machinery  of 
control.  When  added  to  this  are  many  laws  and  regulations, 
some  not  properly  co-ordinated  or  related,  the  resulting  scheme 
is  too  complicated  to  admit  of  easy  understanding,  and  too 
cumbersome  to  encourage  efficient  service. 

There  has  for  some  time  been  a  strong  feeling  that  the  school 
system  ought  to  be  reorganized,  simplified,  and  made  more 
directly  responsive  to  the  demands  of  the  people.  This  feeling 
found  expression  in  the  Assembly  of  1918  in  the  passage  of  the 
following  bill  providing  for  a  careful  study  of  school  conditions 
in  the  State  as  a  basis  for  report  and  recommendations  to  the 
Assembly  of  1920: 

"1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia,  that  a 
commission  consisting  of  two  members  of  the  house  of  delegates,  to 
be  named  by  the  speaker,  two  members  of  the  senate,  to  be  named  by 
the  president  thereof,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and 
three  persons,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a  woman  and  all  three  of  whom 
shall  be  engaged  in  work  connected  with  the  public  free  school  system 
of  the  State,  to  be  named  by  the  governor,  is  hereby  created. 

"2.  The  said  commission  shall  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  exist- 
ing laws,  conditions,  and  needs  of  the  schools,  and  a  comparison  of 
such  progressive  systems  of  education  as  will  enable  the  said  commis- 
sion to  make  practical  and  suitable  recommendations  to  the  members 
elect  of  the  next  general  assembly.  The  said  commission  shall  submit 
to  the  general  assumbly  at  least  sixty  days  before  the  convening 
thereof  for  its  approval  at  its  next  session,  a  revision  of  the  school 
laws  and  suggested  amendments  to  article  IX  of  the  Constitution. 

"3.  The  State  Board  of  Education  shall  provide  a  fund  from  the 
General  Public  school  fund  of  the  State,  not  to  exceed  ten  thousand 
dollars,  or  as  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  to  pay  the  necessary 
expenses  of  this  commission,  and  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  this 
resolution,  and  the  said  commission  is  authorized  to  employ  such 
expert  help  as  it  may  deem  necessary.  Members  of  this  commission 
shall  receive  for  the  actual  time  of  service  their  necessary  traveling 
expenses  and  six  dollars  per  diem.  All  expenses  incurred  by  the  com- 
mission shall  be  paid  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  upon  vouchers 
signed  by  the  chairman  and  secretary  of  said  commission." 


12  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  Commission  was  composed  of  the  following  members: 

From  the  Senate:  Senators  G.  Walter  Mapp  and  C.  O'Conor 
Goolrick; 

From  the  House:  Delegates  Charles  H.  Rolston  and  Franklin 
Williams; 

Appointed  by  the  Governor:  Miss  Bessie  Taylor,  Prof.  Charles 
G.  Maphis,  and  Supt.  Blake  T.  Newton; 

The  State  Superintendent,  Harris  Hart. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  Commission  was  held  July  18,  1918, 
when  Superintendent  Hart  was  elected  chairman,  and  Hon. 
Franklin  Williams,  secretary.  The  general  problem  before  the 
Commission  was  discussed  and  the  following  Committees  were 
assigned  to  study  certain  large  aspects  of  the  problem: 

(1).    Committee  on  Organization: 

Hon.  Charles  H.  Rolston,  Chairman; 
Hon.  G.  Walter  Mapp; 
Supt.  Blake  T.  Newton. 

(2).    Committee  on  Administration: 

Prof.  Charles  G.  Maphis,  Chairman; 
Hon.  Franklin  Williams,  Jr.; 
Miss  Bessie  P.  Taylor. 

(3).    Committee  on  Support: 

Hon.  C.  O'Conor  Goolrick,  Chairman; 
Prof.  Charles  G.  Maphis; 
Hon.  Franklin  Williams,  Jr. 

Several  meetings  were  held  to  arrange  for  a  survey  of  school 
conditions. 

At  a  meeting  on  December  17,  1918,  the  Commission  decided 
to  engage  the  services  of  Dr.  Alexander  Inglis,  of  Harvard 
University,  as  director  of  the  survey,  it  being  decided  that  the 
best  results  could  be  obtained  by  having  an  eminent  specialist 
in  education  from  out  of  the  State  direct  a  field  staff  made  up 
of  Virginians  acquainted  with  local  sentiment  and  local  con- 
ditions. 

Dr.  Inglis  secured  the  co-operation  of  other  eminent  specialists 
in  this  country  to  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  and  to  test  certain 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  13 

conclusions  by  the  experiences  of  other  States.  The  field  staff 
was  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of  Virginia  educators  of  wide 
experience  and  training,  to  which  staff  the  State  Board  of 
Education  assigned  two  supervisors  for  full  time  and  one  for 
about  half  time. 

The  work  of  the  Survey  Staff  was  organized  under  the 
following  divisions : 

Division  of  Organization  and  Administration.  Investigation 
of  the  educational  organization  and  administration,  including 
the  Board  of  Education,  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, the  Normal  School  Board,  the  County  Electoral  Board, 
the  County  Board,  the  District  Trustees,  the  Division  Super- 
intendent, the  City  School  Boards. 

Division  of  Buildings  and  Equipment.  Investigation  of  the 
character  of  buildings  and  equipment,  laws  and  regulations, 
actual  conditions. 

Division  of  Attendance  and  Enrolment.  Investigation  of 
regulations  concerning  enrolment,  attendance,  etc.;  actual 
conditions  regarding  enrolments,  attendance,  length  of  term, 
length  of  school  course,  retardation,  elimination,  over-age,  etc. 

Division  of  Course  of  Study  and  Instruction.  Investigation  of 
the  educational  program  offered  and  actually  given,  time  allot- 
ments for  various  studies  in  schools  of  the  same  and  of  different 
types,  text-books. 

Division  of  Teacher  Status  and  Training.  Investigation  of 
the  teacher  supply,  the  amount  and  character  of  teachers' 
training,  and  amount  of  experience,  certification,  teachers' 
salaries,  the  normal  schools  and  teacher  training  departments 
of  higher  institutions. 

Division  of  Tests  and  Measurement.  The  application  of 
standard  tests  to  children  in  various  types  of  schools,  and  the 
measurement  of  the  results  of  teaching  in  Virginia  as  compared 
with  other  States. 

Division  of  Negro  Education.  An  investigation  of  conditions 
in  negro  schools. 

Division  of  Finance.  Investigation  of  financial  problems  and 
conditions:  The  cost  of  education  in  Virginia  and  elsewhere, 
expenditures,  the  sources  of  funds,  and  their  distribution  and 
apportionment. 


14  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

Division  of  Physical  Education.  Investigation  of  the  status 
of  physical  education,  school  hygiene,  etc. 

Division  of  Vocational  Education.  Investigation  of  the  status 
and  needs  for  vocational  education  in  Virginia. 

Division  of  School  Organization.  Investigation  of  the  way  in 
which  schools  are  organized  in  Virginia,  school  consolidation, 
the  problem  of  the  one-room  school,  junior  high  schools,  etc. 

REPORT  OF  FIELD  WORK  DONE 

Division  of  Organization  and  Administration.  The  organiza- 
tion and  administration  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  and 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  have  been  carefully 
examined,  and  a  policy  of  State  organization  and  administration 
has  been  determined. 

First  hand  examinations  were  made  of  nearly  every  county 
of  the  State  and  of  every  city,  to  ascertain  the  working  of  the 
present  form  of  organization  and  administration.  Representa- 
tives of  the  Survey  Staff  visited  each  division  superintendent 
in  his  own  office  (in  most  cases)  and  made  careful  record  of 
existing  conditions.  On  those  visits  and  in  conferences,  members 
of  the  Survey  Staff  discussed  with  division  superintendents 
existing  difficulties  and  possible  remedies.  Definite  policies 
looking  toward  improvement  have  been  agreed  upon. 

A  careful  comparison  has  been  made  between  conditions  in 
Virginia  and  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Division  of  Buildings  and  Equipment.  Members  of  the 
Survey  Staff  have  visited  and  scored  on  a  standard  form  more 
than  six  hundred  rural  school  buildings  and  many  city  buildings 
in  the  State,  care  being  taken  in  case  of  rural  buildings  to  ex- 
amine typical  schools  of  all  sorts  in  twenty  counties  considered 
representative  of  the  State.  Definite  recommendations  have 
been  prepared  for  the  improvement  of  present  conditions. 

Division  of  Attendance  and  Enrolment.  Conditions  regarding 
enrolment,  attendance,  retardation,  elimination,  over-age,  etc., 
have  been  investigated  in  all  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties 
and  in  all  cities.  Records  have  been  secured  and  interpreted 
involving  nearly  fifty  thousand  white  and  fifteen  thousand 
colored    children    in    county    schools,    and    nearly    sixty-five 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  15 

thousand  white  and  nearly  twenty-five  thousand  colored 
children  in  city  schools.  On  the  basis  of  the  information  thus 
secured  and  interpreted,  the  Survey  Staff  is  prepared  to  make 
definite  recommendations  concerning  the  length  of  the  school 
term,  attendance,  grading,  promotion,  etc.,  etc. 

Division  of  Course  of  Study.  Members  of  the  Survey  Staff 
have  examined  the  theoretic  course  of  study  for  Virginia  schools 
and  have  investigated  the  extent  to  which  that  theoretic  course 
is  carried  out  in  the  schools  of  different  types.  First-hand  study 
of  the  situation  has  been  made  in  more  than  a  thousand  schools 
of  various  types,  and  the  Staff  is  prepared  to  make  several 
recommendations  for  the  improvement  of  conditions. 

Division  of  Teacher  Status  and  Training.  Members  of  the 
Survey  Staff  have  investigated  the  training,  experience,  teaching, 
status,  and  salaries  of  teachers  in  all  schools  of  eighteen  counties 
intensively,  in  all  generally,  and  in  all  cities  of  the  State.  On 
the  basis  of  their  findings,  they  are  prepared  to  make  important 
recommendations.  The  normal  schools  of  the  State  have  been 
investigated  by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff,  and  conditions  in 
the  departments  of  education  in  higher  institutions  have  been 
examined.  Recommendations  have  been  agreed  upon  for  the 
work  of  the  teacher-training  institutions. 

Division  of  Tests  and  Measurements.  For  the  first  time  in  a 
State  Survey,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  ascertain  the 
character  of  the  work  of  the  schools  by  means  of  actual  standard 
tests  given  by  the  Survey  Staff.  The  gift  of  twelve  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars  for  this  purpose  by  the  General  Education 
Board  has  made  it  possible  to  test  about  twenty  thousand 
children  in  the  public  schools  of  Virginia. 

Examinations  have  been  given  in  schools  of  every  type,  and 
a  careful  interpretation  of  the  results  made.  Pupils  have  been 
tested  in  grades  one  to  eight  in  twenty-two  counties  and 
fourteen  cities.  It  is  estimated  that  about  three  hundred 
thousand  tests  have  been  given  in  all,  producing  a  body  of 
information  never  before  approached  in  this  country  or  any 
other.  This  material  is  considered  by  competent  judges  to  be 
the  most  satisfactory  body  of  measurement  data  which  has  ever 
been  collected. 


16  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  tests  given  were  of  two  sorts.  The  first  group  was 
intended  to  measure  the  achievements  of  children  in  reading, 
arithmetic,  spelling,  handwriting,  algebra,  and  English  compo- 
sition. In  measuring  the  achievements  of  children,  use  has 
been  made  of  well-known  standardized  educational  tests  and 
scales.  In  addition  to  those  tests  a  new  scale  for  the  measure- 
ment of  primary  reading  has  been  devised.  In  addition  to  the 
achievement  tests,  there  has  also  been  given  a  test  to  measure 
the  general  capacity  of  children  to  do  school  work.  In  order  to 
check  the  validity  of  any  new  tests  and  of  the  general  capacity 
tests,  the  same  tests  have  been  given  at  the  instance  of  the 
Virginia  Survey  Staff  to  children  in  many  places  outside  the 
State  so  that  proper  comparisons  may  be  made. 

On  the  basis  of  these  tests  and  measurements,  recommenda- 
tions are  made  to  the  Educational  Commission. 

Division  of  Negro  Education.  The  peculiar  problems  of  Negro 
education  in  Virginia  are  considered  and  recommendations 
made  through  an  advisory  board  consisting  of  Mr.  Jackson 
Davis,  formerly  Supervisor  of  Negro  Schools  in  the  State; 
Dr.  James  Dillard,  President  of  the  Jeanes  and  Slater  Funds; 
Dr.  Thomas  Jesse  Jones,  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education, 
who  has  made  a  special  study  of  Negro  education  in  the  South ; 
Dr.  George  Phenix,  Vice-Principal  of  Hampton  Institute; 
Mr.  John  Gandy,  Principal  of  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute;  and  Mr.  J.  W.  B.  Williams,  Field  Agent  for  the 
Jeanes  and  Slater  Funds. 

Divisions  of  Finance.  On  the  basis  of  the  investigations 
made  by  the  Survey  Staff,  a  definitely  constructive  program  is 
recommended  for  the  financial  support  of  the  schools. 

Division  of  Physical  Education.  Matters  of  school  hygiene 
have  been  studied  by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  in  over  six 
hundred  rural  schools  and  all  city  schools.  In  addition,  the 
Director  of  Child  Welfare  and  School  Hygiene  has  carefully 
analyzed  information  concerning  physical  education  and 
school  hygiene. 

Division  of  Vocational  Education.  Working  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Survey  Staff,  the  State  Supervisor  of  Industrial 
Education  has  investigated  the  industrial  educational  situation 
in  fourteen  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  State. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  17 

Division  of  School  Organization.  Members  of  the  Survey 
Staff  have  considered  carefully  problems  of  the  one-room  school 
and  of  consolidation,  and  also  the  possibilities  of  the  junior- 
senior  high  school  organization  in  Virginia.  They  have  a 
definite  program  of  recommendations. 

The  conditions,  facts,  and  figures  brought  out  by  the  Survey 
Staff  were  analyzed  during  the  summer  months  and  formed  the 
basis  of  the  report  of  the  Staff  to  the  Education  Commission. 
In  a  series  of  meetings  of  the  Commission  from  August  27th 
to  September  3d  this  report  was  presented  in  person  by 
Dr.  Inglis. 

This  report  contains  so  much  illuminating  and  valuable 
material,  brought  together  in  such  a  clear  and  logical  fashion, 
that  the  Commission  feels  it  ought  to  be  preserved  in  permanent 
form.  This  material  is,  therefore,  printed  as  a  part  of  the 
report  to  the  General  Assembly.  The  use  of  the  Survey  Staff's 
report  will  relieve  the  Commission  of  the  necessity  of  portraying 
at  length  school  conditions  in  Virginia,  or  of  amplifying  certain 
arguments  for  the  adoption  of  the  recommendations  submitted. 
References  to  the  Staff  report  will  make  the  recommendations 
of  the  Commission  clear  and  convincing. 

This  report,  therefore,  is  divided  into  two  parts: 

1.  Recommendations  of  the  Commission  to  the  General 
Assembly; 

2.  The  report  of  the  Survey  Staff  to  the  Commission. 

The  Assembly  of  1918  authorized  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  use  ten  thousand  dollars  of  the  public  school  funds  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  Commission.  This  sum  was  too 
small  to  make  possible  a  serious  study  and  thorough  analysis 
of  the  school  conditions  in  the  State.  Through  the  efforts  of 
the  Commission  and  the  Director  of  the  Survey  Staff,  an  added 
amount,  twelve  thousand,  five  hundred  dollars,  was  secured 
from  the  General  Education  Board  for  a  department  of  tests 
and  measurements. 

A  statement  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  Com- 
mission is  appended  to  this  report. 

The  Education  Commission  considers  it  most  unfortunate 
that  the  Constitution  of  Virginia,  in  the  sections  on  public 
education,  has  dealt  too  much  in  particulars.    In  consequence, 


18  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

a  number  of  very  important  reforms  which  should  be  instituted 
at  once  must  await  the  tedious  process  of  constitutional  amend- 
ment. If  the  Constitution  had  dealt  only  with  fundamental 
principles  and  had  left  particular  adjustments  to  the  Legislature, 
the  way  would  be  clear  for  more  immediate  improvement  in  the 
school  affairs  of  the  State. 

Owing  to  this  situation,  the  recommendations  of  the  Com- 
mission will  have  to  embrace  certain  constitutional  amendments. 
The  recommendations  are,  therefore,  classed  under  the  following 
heads: 

I.    Constitutional  amendments; 

II.    Statute  laws. 

I. — CONSTITUTIONAL  AMENDMENTS 

(1).  State  Board  of  Education.  Section  130  of  the  Consti- 
tution provides  that  the  general  supervision  of  the  school 
system  shall  be  vested  in  a  State  Board  of  Education,  composed 
of  the  Governor,  the  Attorney-General,  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  three  experienced  educators  elected  by 
the  Senate  from  a  list  of  eligibles,  consisting  of  one 'from  each 
of  the  faculties  of  the  State  institutions  of  higher  learning. 
The  six  members  thus  selected  appoint  two  added  members, 
one  of  whom  must  be  a  city  and  the  other  a  county  school 
superintendent.  Chapter  XVIII  of  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff 
presents  reasons  why  this  composition  of  the  Board  is  considered 
unfortunate.  The  divided  responsibility,  the  lack  of  unity  in 
the  method  of  forming  it,  and  the  rather  complicated  manner 
of  its  choice,  would  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  a  simpler 
plan  of  organization  would  serve  better  the  interests  of 
education. 

There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  public  affairs  to  limit  the 
number  of  officials  and  to  increase  individual  responsibility. 
We  believe  that  the  State  Board  of  Education  should  be 
appointed  directly  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  who  should 
be  made  responsible  for  the  efficiency  of  this  board.  It  is 
important  to  fix  the  number  of  its  members  and  the  tenure  of 
office  in  such  a  way  as  to  discourage  as  far  as  possible  the  effort 
of  an  executive  who  may  be  influenced  more  by  political 
expediency  than  by  devotion  to  public  service. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  19 

The  Commission,  therefore,  recommends  an  amendment  to 
the  Constitution  whereby  Section  130  is  annulled,  and  as  a 
substitute  for  it,  a  provision  is  adopted  that  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  school  system  shall  be  vested  in  a  State  Board  of 
Education  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor,  subject  to  the 
confirmation  of  the  Senate,  and  to  consist  of  such  number, 
with  such  tenure  of  office,  as  may  be  fixed  by  law. 

(2).  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Section  131 
of  the  Constitution  provides  that  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction  shall  be  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  State, 
at  the  same  time  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  Governor;  that 
his  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
of  which  he  shall  be  ex-officio  president;  and  his  compensation 
shall  be  fixed  by  law. 

The  Commission  believes  that  it  is  fundamental  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  common  schools  to  give  the  people  of  the  State 
a  larger  and  more  direct  participation  in  school  affairs.  With 
this  participation,  apathy  will  give  place  to  interest;  thoughtless 
acquiescence  to  initiative;  and  criticism  to  co-operation.  The 
Commission  believes  this  participation,  however,  should  more 
properly  find  scope  in  local  school  affairs  and  local  problems 
than  in  the  election  of  a  State  official. 

Chapter  XVIII  of  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff,  Section  ii, 
presents  very  pertinent  arguments  against  the  election  of  the 
State  Superintendent  by  the  people.  With  these  arguments 
the  Commission  is  in  agreement.  It,  therefore,  recommends 
that  Section  131  of  the  Constitution  be  amended  to  provide 
that  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  his  selection  to  be  determined 
without  reference  to  place  of  residence. 

(3).  State  Board,  Duties.  The  Constitution,  Section  132, 
enumerates  the  duties  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  speci- 
fying that  it  shall  divide  the  State  into  school  divisions,  appoint 
a  school  superintendent  for  each  division,  manage  and  invest 
the  school  fund,  select  text-books,  etc.  The  Commission  is  of 
the  opinion  that  to  enumerate  duties  in  the  Constitution  itself 
is  unwise,  and  particularly  is  the  duty  to  appoint  division 
school  superintendents  not  consonant  with  the  Commission's 
belief  as  to  the  best  method  of  procedure. 


20  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

It  is  recommended,  therefore,  that  Section  132  be  amended 
to  provide  that  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  divide  the 
State  into  appropriate  school  divisions,  comprising  not  less  than 
one  county  or  city  or  town  each,  but  no  county  or  city  or  town 
to  be  divided  in  the  formation  of  such  division?,  and  that  the 
State  Board  shall  exercise  such  other  powers  and  duties  as  may 
be  fixed  by  law. 

(4).  County  Unit.  The  Commission,  in  agreement  with  the 
Survey  Staff,  urgently  recommends  that  the  county  rather  than 
the  school  district  be  made  the  unit  of  administration.  Under 
the  present  arrangement,  the  complex  local  school  machinery  is 
the  most  serious  obstacle  to  progress.  The  people  of  the  country 
have  no  direct  participation  in  school  affairs.  A  trustee  electoral 
board  created  by  statute  and  consisting  of  the  division  superin- 
tendent, the  Commonwealth's  attorney,  and  a  citizen  appointed 
by  the  court,  selects  three  trustees  for  each  district,  a  number 
fixed  by  the  Constitution,  Section  133,  and  acts  as  a  court  of 
appeal  to  review  the  acts  of  its  own  appointees.  Each  district 
board  is  a  corporate  body  and  may  act  in  many  matters  inde- 
pendently of  other  district  boards  in  the  same  county.  Such 
uniformity  and  general  co-operation  as  is  found  in  a  county  then, 
is  due  to  the  foresight  and  wisdom  of  school  officials  rather  than 
to  the  provisions  of  the  law.  It  would  be  hard  to  invent  a  more 
unsatisfactory  plan  of  local  control  than  the  one  now  in  vogue 
in  Virginia.  The  State  is  chopped  up  into  498  school  districts, 
with  a  total  of  1,499  district  trustees.  In  addition  there  are 
100  electoral  boards  with  a  total  of  200  members,  exclusive  of 
the  division  superintendents,  or  a  total  of  1,694  board  members. 

The  division  superintendent  occupies  the  anomalous  position 
of  being  a  member  of  the  trustee  electoral  board  which  appoints 
trustees,  chairman  of  the  county  school  board,  and  commonly 
by  courtesy  the  directive  officer  of  district  boards,  and  then 
member  of  the  electoral  board  in  its  capacity  of  a  board  of 
appeal  or  review.  The  fact  that  this  scheme  has  worked  at  all 
is  a  testimony  to  the  patriotism  of  trustees  and  to  the  devotion 
of  superintendents.  Certainly  there  is  nothing  in  the  arrange- 
ment itself  to  commend  it  as  a  wise  administrative  plan.  We 
call  special  attention  to  Chapter  XIX  of  the  Survey  Staff  report, 
and  we  particularly  urge  that  attention  be  given  to  Table  119 
showing  how  indifferently  the  present  plan  operates. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  21 

The  Commission  recommends  an  amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution to  provide  that  the  control  of  the  school  system  in  each 
county  and  in  each  city  or  town,  which  forms  a  separate  school 
division,  shall  be  exercised  by  a  school  board  to  be  elected  by 
the  qualified  voters  of  such  county  or  city  or  town  to  the  number 
and  for  a  term  to  be  prescribed  by  law,  both  men  and  women 
being  eligible  as  members  of  such  school  boards.  The  school 
board  of  each  county,  city  and  town,  if  the  same  be  a  separate 
school  district,  shall  appoint  a  division  superintendent  of 
schools  from  a  list  of  eligibles  furnished  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  and  shall  exercise  such  other  duties  and  powers  as 
may  be  fixed  by  law  or  prescribed  by  the  regulations  of  the 
State  Board  of  Education  in  accordance  with  the  law. 

It  is  further  recommended  that  the  trustee  electoral  board, 
the  district  school  board,  and  the  county  school  board  as  now 
constituted  be  abolished,  and  that  the  statute  prescribe  that 
the  school  affairs  of  each  city  and  town  which  forms  a  separate 
school  division  be  under  the  control  of  a  school  board  of  five 
members  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  city  at  large  for 
a  term  of  four  years;  and  that  the  control  of  the  schools  in  each 
county  be  under  a  county  school  board  composed  of  one  member 
for  each  magisterial  district,  elected  by  the  qualified  voters 
thereof  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  statute  should  provide  a 
per  diem  for  school  board  members  not  to  exceed  five  dollars 
per  day  for  not  more  than  fifteen  days  in  any  one  year.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  also  that  in  case  a  county  board  have  an 
even  number  of  members  because  of  the  even  number  of 
magisterial  districts,  a  tie  vote  on  the  election  of  the  division 
superintendent  shall  be  settled  by  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, and  in  the  event  of  a  tie  vote  on  any  other  matters,  the 
division  superintendent  shall  vote. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  that  members  of  the  county 
board  be  elected  from  the  county  at  large  rather  than  by 
magisterial  districts.  The  Commission  agrees  in  principle  with 
this  recommendation,  but  owing  to  the  peculiar  situation  in 
rural  Virginia  and  to  the  traditional  practice  of  regarding  the 
magisterial  district  as  the  political  unit  in  elections,  it  is  thought 
that  for  the  present,  at  least,  better  results  will  be  obtained  by 
continuing  a  practice  familiar  to  the  people.    The  magisterial 


22  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

district  is  to  be  continued,  however,  purely  as  the  basis  of 
electing  board  members,  and  not  in  any  sense  as  the  basis  of 
operating  the  schools. 

(5).  Distribution  of  School  Funds.  The  report  of  the  Survey 
Staff,  Chapter  XXI,  Section  iv,  discusses  the  present  illogical 
method  of  distributing  school  funds  in  Virginia.  A  careful 
reading  of  this  chapter  will  clearly  indicate  that  to  distribute 
State  funds  for  school  purposes  on  the  basis  of  school  population 
is  illogical  and  unfair,  in  that  there  is  no  fixed  relationship 
between  the  amount  of  money  which  the  State  may  send  to  a 
division  and  the  clearly  established  needs  of  that  division.  The 
Commission,  therefore,  recommends  that  Section  135  of  the 
Constitution  be  amended  so  as  to  provide  for  the  distribution  of 
school  funds  in  a  manner  to  be  determined  by  law.  It  further 
recommends  the  elimination  from  this  section  of  the  suggested 
age  limit,  seven  to  twenty,  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
Assembly  of  Virginia  to  fix  what  may  appear  to  be  a  proper  age 
for  school  attendance. 

(6).  Local  School  Funds.  Section  136  of  the  Constitution 
provides  for  local  revenues  for  the  schools  by  the  levying  of 
taxes  in  cities  and  in  counties  and  school  districts.  This  section 
contemplates  the  maintenance  of  the  school  district  as  a  unit 
of  taxation,  as  provided  in  Section  133.  The  recommendation 
of  the  Commission  that  the  school  district  be  abolished  necessi- 
tates a  revision  of  this  section  in  such  way  as  to  provide  for  one 
county  tax  for  school  purposes.  Already  an  amendment  is 
under  way  which  would  remove  the  limit  fixed  in  the  Consti- 
tution and  provide  that  the  limit  be  fixed  by  statute. 

The  Commission,  therefore,  recommends  that  Section  136 
be  amended  to  provide  that  each  county,  city  and  town,  if  the 
same  be  a  separate  school  division,  shall  levy  on  all  classes  of 
property  subject  to  local  taxation  a  tax  for  school  purposes,  the 
amount  of  funds  needed  to  be  determined  by  the  school  board 
of  such  county,  city  and  town,  and  the  necessary  tax  to  be  levied 
and  collected  by  the  county  board  of  supervisors  or  city  or  town 
council,  but  said  tax  shall  not  be  in  excess  of  a  maximum  to  be 
fixed  by  law.  The  statute  law  should  provide  that  not  less  than 
half  of  the  funds  derived  from  the  local  tax  or  an  amount  equal 
to  the  State  fund  for  this  purpose  shall  be  used  to  pay  salaries 
of  teachers. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  23 

An  amendment  was  offered  in  the  Assembly  of  1918  removing 
the  limit  of  five  mills  on  the  aggregate  local  tax  as  fixed  in 
Section  136  of  the  Constitution.  We  urgently  recommend  that 
the  Assembly  of  1920  act  favorably  on  this  resolution  in  order 
that  by  a  vote  of  the  people,  the  limit  may  be  removed  from 
the  Constitution  and  be  fixed  in  the  statute  law. 

(7).  Compulsory  Attendance.  Section  138  of  the  Constitution 
is  also  to  be  amended  under  a  regulation  which  passed  the 
Assembly  of  1918.  This  section  places  certain  illogical  limita- 
tions on  the  operation  of  a  compulsory  school  law.  These  are 
removed  in  the  proposed  amendment,  the  General  Assembly 
being  given  discretion  to  provide  for  compulsory  education  and 
to  fix  the  age  limit,  the  length  of  attendance  and  other  partic- 
ulars. The  Commission  urges  the  Assembly  of  1920  to  take 
favorable  action  on  this  resolution  in  order  that  the  amendment 
may  be  voted  upon  by  the  people. 

The  Commission  desires  to  pause  here  long  enough  to  empha- 
size the  very  great  importance  of  a  practical  compulsory  school 
law.  It  invites  a  serious  study  of  Chapter  III,  Section  iv,  of  the 
report  of  the  Survey  Staff.  The  per  cent  of  children  who  are 
attend'ng  school  in  Virginia  with  sufficient  regularity  to  make 
real  training  possible  is  alarmingly  small.  Careful  attention  is 
invited  to  Tables  9,  10,  11  and  12;  also  Tables  13  and  14  of  the 
report  of  the  Survey  Staff. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Commission  on  amendments  to 
the  Constitution  of  Virginia  are  summarized  in  the  following: 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  130  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following  words: 

The  general  supervision  of  the  school  system  shall  be  vested  in  a 
State  Board  of  Education,  composed  of  the  Governor,  Attorney- 
General,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  and  three  experienced 
educators,  to  be  elected  quadrennially  by  the  Senate,  from  a  list  of 
eligibles,  consisting  of  one  from  each  of  the  faculties,  and  nominated 
hy  the  respective  boards  of  visitors  or  trustees  of  the  University  of 
Virginia,  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  the  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute,  the  State  Female  Normal  School  at  Farmville,  the  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  and  also  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary 
so  long  as  the  State  continues  its  annual  appropriation  to  the  last 
named  institution. 

The  board  thus  constituted  shall  select  and  associate  with  itself 
two  division  superintendents  of  schools,  one  from  a  county  and  the 
other  from  a  city,  who  shall  hold  office  for  two  years,  and  whose  powers. 


24  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

and  duties  shall  be  identical  with  those  of  other  members,  except  that 
they  shall  not  participate  in  the  appointment  of  any  public  school 
official. 

Any  vacancy  occurring  during  the  term  of  any  member  of  the  board 
shall  be  filled  for  the  unexpired  term  by  said  board. 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  131  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following  words: 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  who  shall  be  an  experi- 
enced educator,  shall  be  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  State 
at  the  same  time  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  Governor.  Any  vacancy 
in  said  office  shall  be  filled  for  the  unexpired  term  by  the  said  board. 

His  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  of 
which  he  shall  be  ex-officio  president;  and  his  compensation  shall  be 
fixed  by  law. 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  132  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following  words: 

The  duties  and  powers  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  be  as 
follows : 

First.  It  may,  in  its  discretion,  divide  the  State  into  appropriate 
school  divisions,  comprising  not  less  than  one  county  or  city  each,  but 
no  county  or  city  shall  be  divided  in  the  formation  of  such  divisions. 
It  shall,  subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the  Senate,  appoint,  for  each 
of  such  divisions,  one  superintendent  of  schools,  who  shall  hold  office 
for  four  years,  and  shall  prescribe  his  duties,  and  may  remove  him 
for  cause  and  upon  notice. 

Second.  It  shall  have,  regulated  by  law,  the  management  and 
investment  of  the  school  fund. 

Third.  It  shall  have  authority  to  make  all  needful  rules  and  regu- 
lations for  the  management  and  conduct  of  the  schools,  which,  when 
published  and  distributed,  shall  have  the  force  and  effect  of  law, 
subject  to  the  authority  of  the  General  Assembly  to  revise,  amend,  or 
repeal  the  same. 

Fourth.  It  shall  select  text-books  and  educational  appliances  for  use 
in  the  schools  of  the  State,  exercising  such  discretion  as  it  may  see  fit 
in  the  selection  of  books  suitable  for  the  schools  in  the  cities  and 
counties,  respectively. 

Fifth.  It  shall  appoint  a  board  of  directors,  consisting  of  five  mem- 
bers, to  serve  without  compensation,  which  shall  have  the  management 
of  the  State  Library,  and  the  appointment  of  a  librarian  and  other 
employees  thereof,  subject  to  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the  General 
Assembly  shall  prescribe ;  but  the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals  shall  have 
the  management  of  the  law  library  and  the  appointment  of  the  librarian 
and  other  employees  thereof. 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  133  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following  words: 

Each  magisterial  district  shall  constitute  a  separate  school  district, 
unless  otherwise  provided  by  law.  In  each  school  district  there  shall 
be  three  trustees  selected  in  the  manner  and  for  the  term  of  office 
prescribed  by  law. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  25 

And  insert  in  lieu  of  all  of  the  above  sections  the  following: 

The  general  supervision  of  the  school  system  shall  be  vested 
in  a  State  Board  of  Education  to  be  appointed  by  the  Governor, 
subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the  Senate,  and  to  consist  of 
such  number,  with  such  tenure  of  office,  as  may  be  fixed  by  law. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  shall  appoint  as  its  executive 
and  administrative  officer  a  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, whose  selection  may  be  determined  without  reference  to 
place  of  residence,  and  whose  term  of  office  and  salary  shall  be 
fixed  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  law.  The  State 
Board  of  Education  shall  divide  the  State  into  appropriate 
school  divisions,  comprising  not  less  than  one  county  or  city  or 
town  each,  and  no  county  or  city  or  town  shall  be  divided  in 
the  formation  of  such  divisions.  The  State  Board  of  Education 
shall  exercise  such  other  duties  and  powers  as  may  be  fixed  by 
law. 

The  control  of  the  school  system  in  each  county,  and  city  and 
town  which  forms  a  separate  school  division,  shall  be  under  a 
school  board  to  be  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  such 
county  or  city  or  town,  to  the  number  and  for  a  term  to  be 
prescribed  by  law,  provided  that  both  men  and  women  may 
serve  as  board  members.  For  each  school  division,  the  school 
board  or  school  boards  thereof  shall,  subject  to  the  confirmation 
of  the  Senate  or  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  appoint  a 
division  superintendent  from  a  list  of  eligibles  prepared  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  on  a  basis  of  reasonable  academic  and 
professional  qualifications.  The  county  and  the  city  or  town 
school  board  shall  have  such  other  duties  and  powers  as  may  be 
fixed  by  law  or  prescribed  in  accordance  with  the  law  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education. 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  135  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following ^words: 

The  General  Assembly  shall  apply  the  annual  interest  on  the  literary 
fund;  that  portion  of  the  capitation  tax  provided  for  in  the  Constitu- 
tion to  be  paid  into  the  State  treasury,  and  not  returnable  to  the 
counties  and  cities ;  and  an  annual  tax  on  property  of  not  less  than 
one  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  to  the  schools  of  the  primary 
and  grammar  grades,  for  the  equal  benefit  of  all  of  the  people  of  the 
State,  to  be  apportioned  on  a  basis  of  school  population ;  the  number  of 
children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  twenty  years  in  each  school 
district  to  be  the  basis  of  such  apportionment;  but  if  at  any  time  the 
several  kinds  or  classes  of  property  shall  be  segregated  for  the  pur- 


26  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

poses  of  taxation,  so  as  to  specify  and  determine  upon  what  subjects 
State  taxes  and  upon  what  subjects  local  taxes  may  be  levied,  then  the 
General  Assembly  may  otherwise  provide  for  a  fixed  appropriation  of 
State  revenue  to  the  support  of  the  schools  not  less  than  that  provided 
in  this  section. 

And  insert  in  lieu  thereof  the  following : 

The  General  Assembly  shall  apply  the  annual  interest  on  the 
Literary  Fund;  that  portion  of  the  capitation  tax  provided  for 
in  the  Constitution  to  be  paid  into  the  State  treasury,  and  not 
returnable  to  the  counties  and  cities;  an  annual  tax  on  property 
of  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar,  to  the 
public  schools  for  the  equal  benefit  of  all  the  people  of  the 
State,  to  be  apportioned  on  a  basis  to  be  prescribed  by  law,  but 
if  at  any  time  the  several  kinds  or  classes  of  property  shall  be 
segregated  for  the  purpose  of  taxation  so  as  to  specify  and 
determine  upon  what  subjects  State  taxes  and  upon  what 
subjects  local  taxes  may  be  levied,  then  the  General  Assembly 
may  otherwise  provide  for  a  fixed  appropriation  of  State  revenue 
for  the  support  of  the  schools  to  be  not  less  than  that  provided 
in  this  section. 

Strike  out  from  the  Constitution  of  Virginia  Section  136  of 
Article  9,  which  is  in  the  following  words: 

Each  county,  city,  town  (if  the  same  be  a  separate  school  district), 
and  school  district  is  authorized  to  raise  additional  sums  by  a  tax  on 
property,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  five  mills  on  the  dollar  in 
any  one  year,  to  be  apportioned  and  expended  by  the  local  school 
authorities  of  said  counties,  cities,  towns  and  districts  in  establishing 
and  maintaining  such  schools  as  in  their  judgment  the  public  welfare 
may  require ;  provided,  that  such  primary  schools  as  may  be  estab- 
lished in  any  school  year  shall  be  maintained  at  least  four  months  of 
that  school  year  before  any  part  of  the  fund  assessed  and  collected  may 
be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of  schools  of  higher  grade.  The 
boards  of  supervisors  of  the  several  counties,  and  the  councils  of  the 
several  cities  and  towns,  if  the  same  be  separate  school  districts,  shall 
provide  for  the  levy  and  collection  of  such  local  school  taxes. 

And  insert  in  lieu  thereof: 

Each  county,  city  and  town,  if  the  same  be  a  separate  school 
division,  is  authorized  to  raise  additional  sums  by  a  tax  on 
property,  not  to  exceed  in  any  one  year  a  maximum  to  be  fixed 
by  law,  to  be  apportioned  and  expended  by  the  school  board  of 
such  county,  city  and  town  in  establishing  and  maintaining 
such  schools  as  the  public  welfare  and  the  standards  set  up  by 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  27 

the  State  Board  of  Education  may  require.  The  school  board 
of  such  county,  city  and  town  shall  determine  the  amount  of 
the  school  tax,  which  shall  be  levied  and  collected  by  the 
councils  of  the  several  cities  and  towns  and  the  boards  of  super- 
visors of  the  several  counties. 

II. — RECOMMENDED  AMENDMENTS  AND  CHANGES  IN  STATUTE  LAW 

(1).  School  Term.  Chapter  II  of  the  report  of  the  Survey 
Staff  describes  in  great  detail  the  evils  attendant  upon  the  short 
school  term  in  Virginia.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Commission  it  is 
impossible  to  provide  adequate  school  training  for  the  boys  and 
girls  of  the  State  without  a  material  lengthening  of  the  school 
term,  particularly  in  the  non-city  schools.  In  the  cities,  the 
term  of  nine  months  is  well-nigh  uniform,  but  in  rural  Virginia 
the  length  of  term  is  variable  and  commonly  insufficient.  The 
Assembly  of  Virginia  of  1918  in  the  appropriation  bill,  very 
wisely  imposes  the  condition  that  the  local  school  division 
should  maintain  a  term  of  at  least  seven  months  or  twenty  days 
longer  than  the  previous  session,  or  for  a  period  satisfactory  to 
the  State  Board  of  Education,  before  it  can  share  in  the  cash 
appropriation  bill.    This  has  materially  improved  the  situation. 

In  years  gone  by,  a  term  of  five  months  was  regarded  to  be  a 
legal  minimum.  The  action  of  the  Assembly  of  1918,  above 
referred  to,  would  tend  to  establish  seven  months  as  the  legal 
minimum.  It  is  the  serious  conviction  of  the  Education  Com- 
mission that  the  statute  law  of  the  State  should  recognize  a 
standard  term  of  nine  months  for  non-city  as  well  as  city  schools. 
Code  1918,  Section  669,  should,  therefore,  be  revised  in  such  a 
way  as  to  establish  a  standard  term  of  nine  months  instead  of  a 
term  of  five  months  as  indicated  in  the  statute. 

Code  1918,  Section  705,  provides  for  the  establishment  of 
high  schools  on  the  condition  that  no  State  funds  shall  be  used 
for  high  school  purposes  until  the  primary  and  grammar  grades 
of  the  district  or  districts  have  been  maintained  for  a  term  of 
at  least  five  months.  This  provision  is  illogical  from  two  points 
of  view.  In  the  first  place,  the  attempt  to  differentiate  between 
elementary  and  high  school  training  in  such  a  way  as  to  set  up 
one  as  opposed  to  the  other  rather  than  the  treatment  of  both 
as  parts  of  a  unit  of  effort  is  archaic,  and  not  in  accordance  with 
the  spirit  of  modern  progress. 


28  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  people  of  Virginia  want  high  school  training  for  their 
children  just  as  surely  as  they  demand  elementary  training. 
By  proper  regulation,  the  State  Board  of  Education  should  see 
to  it  that  advanced  grades  do  not  thrive  at  the  expense  of  the 
elementary  grades,  but  the  statute  law  should  no  longer  contain 
provisions  which  would  indicate  that  high  school  education  is  a 
luxury  reserved  for  the  few. 

The  provision  is  again  illogical  because  it  indicates  the  possi- 
bility of  developing  a  system  of  high  schools  on  a  minimum 
elementary  term  of  five  months.  This  encourages  the  belief  that 
a  superstructure  of  training  can  be  based  on  a  very  limited 
elementary  foundation.  The  statute  should  be  revised  in  order 
to  eliminate  any  such  suggestion. 

(2).  Age  of  Attendance.  Attention  is  directed  to  Chapter  III 
of  the  Survey  Staff  report  for  an  enlightening  discussion  of  the 
problem  of  school  age  and  attendance  in  Virginia.  It  is  practi- 
cally impossible  to  ascertain  at  the  present  time  what  is  the  legal 
age  of  attendance  in  Virginia.  The  Constitution  provides,  as 
above  stated,  that  school  funds  shall  be  distributed  on  .the  basis 
of  school  population,  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and 
twenty  being  enumerated.  In  1914,  a  statute  was  passed  pro- 
viding for  the  admission,  under  certain  conditions,  of  children 
six  years  of  age.  The  Commission  recommends  that  the  statute 
law  define  the  school  age  to  be  from  the  age  of  six  to  eighteen, 
inclusive,  and  that  the  school  population  be  enumerated  upon 
the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  of  these  ages. 

The  law  should  provide  for  the  attendance  of  children  under 
six  years  of  age  upon  kindergartens  operated  as  a  part  of  the 
public  school  system. 

Code  1918,  Section  719,  should  be  amended  to  read: 

Public  schools  shall  be  free  to  all  persons  from  six  to  eighteen 
years  of  age,  inclusive,  and  persons  under  six  years  of  age  may 
be  admitted  to  kindergartens  operated  as  a  part  of  the  public 
school  system,  etc. 

(3).  School  Census.  Under  the  present  statute  the  census 
of  the  school  population  is  taken  every  five  years.  School 
reports  showing  among  other  items  percentage  of  attendance 
are  required  every  year.  It  is  clear  that  all  school  statistics  in 
the  Virginia  schools  are  inaccurate  and  untrustworthy  on  this 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  29 

point,  except  for  the  one  year  out  of  the  five  immediately 
following  the  census.  In  other  words,  the  base  upon  which 
attendance  and  percentage  records  are  made  is  now  fixed  only 
every  five  years  for  a  five-year  period,  whereas  the  percentages 
are  tabulated  every  year.  The  rate  or  per  cent  of  attendance  is, 
therefore,  clearly  misleading.  To  make  school  statistics  really 
valuable  and  in  order  that  the  people  may  understand  what 
the  actual  condition  is,  it  is  necessary  for  some  form  of  cumu- 
lative census  to  be  taken  every  year. 

The  regular  census  to  be  worth  while  must  be  accurate, 
therefore,  great  care  and  precaution  should  be  exercised  in  the 
appointment  of  persons  to  take  the  census,  and  the  pay  for 
such  work  should  be  reasonable.  Code  1918.  Section  653, 
provides  that  in  1920,  and  every  five  years  thereafter,  the 
census  shall  be  taken  by  the  clerk  of  the  district  board  or  by 
deputies  appointed  by  the  division  superintendent,  and  that 
for  such  service  the  clerk  or  his  deputies  shall  be  paid  three 
dollars  per  hundred  of  the  children  listed. 

We  recommend  that  this  Section  be  so  amended  as  to  provide 
for  a  census  of  all  children  from  six  to  eighteen  years  of  age, 
inclusive,  to  be  taken  in  1920  and  every  five  years  thereafter, 
and  that  for  each  intervening  year  a  cumulative  census  shall 
be  made.  The  regular  census  shall  be  taken  by  agents  appointed 
by  the  school  board  on  the  recommendation  of  the  division 
superintendent,  said  agents  to  be  paid  an  amount  not  to  exceed 
five  dollars  per  hundred.  The  cumulative  census  shall  be 
recorded  on  a  census  card  to  be  provided  by  the  Department 
of  Education,  and  shall  be  made  yearly  on  information  which 
the  superintendent  may  secure  from  teachers,  parents,  local 
school  leagues,  and  from  reports  submitted  to  him  by  the 
Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics.  This  census  shall  deal  only  with 
additions  and  corrections  to  the  regular  census  made  once 
every  five  years. 

(4).  Text-Books..  Chapter  V  of  the  report  of  the  Survey 
Staff  sets  forth  the  condition  which  exists  relative  to  the  supply 
of  text-books  and  supplies.  It  is  evident  that  an  adequate  and 
prompt  supply  of  these  materials  is  necessary  for  instructional 
purposes.  Three  elements  of  the  problem  of  school  texts  give 
concern:  The  retail  price  of  the  books,  the  change  of  text-books, 


30  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

and  their  distribution.  So  long  as  texts  must  be  sold  to  pupils 
at  a  retail  price,  a  small  difference  in  the  price  will  encourage 
a  tendency  towards  the  adoption  of  a  cheaper  book.  The  price 
is  commonly  the  only  thing  the  patron  observes,  and  insistence 
upon  the  article  of  lower  cost  is  not  unnatural.  Every  pre- 
caution ought  to  be  taken  to  place  in  the  hands  of  pupils  the 
best  and  most  teachable  texts,  but  under  the  present  circum- 
stances this  can  be  done  only  with  difficulty. 

So  long  as  books  must  be  bought  by  pupils,  there  will  continue 
to  be  strong  opposition  to  changing  the  books,  because  this  is 
thought  to  entail  loss  and  to  impose  an  unnecessary  burden 
upon  the  parent.  While  needless  changes  in  the  State  list 
ought  to  be  avoided  in  any  circumstances,  yet  latitude  should 
be  allowed  in  order  to  keep  the  texts  of  this  State  abreast  with 
the  best  books  the  market  can  furnish. 

The  most  serious  aspect  of  the  present  condition  is  the 
practical  impossibility  of  having  a  satisfactory  distribution  of 
books.  Publishers  are  under  contract  with  the  State  Board  of 
Education  to  furnish  texts  at  a  certain  retail  price  and  to  provide 
that  they  be  on  sale  at  points  convenient  to  pupils  of  the  State. 
In  order  to  carry  out  this  latter  provision,  book  publishers  have 
established  in  the  city  of  Richmond  a  depository  which  assumes 
the  responsibility  of  distribution.  Various  methods  have  been 
tried  in  States  having  statewide  book  adoptions,  for  the  most 
part  the  Southern  States,  to  secure  a  satisfactory  means  of 
distribution,  and  the  depository  plan  has  more  nearly 
approached  success  than  any  other  method  attempted.  Yet 
the  results  are  far  from  satisfactory.  The  depository  sends 
books  on  consignment  to  local  dealers  who  are  allowed  ten  per 
cent  for  handling  the  texts.  Dealers  frequently  undertake  this 
work  unwillingly,  for  the  margin  is  too  small  to  allow  reasonable 
profit  over  the  expense  of  carrying  on  the  business.  As  a  result, 
many  sections  of  the  State  have  no  means  of  supply,  and  it  is 
no  uncommon  thing  for  a  patron  to  have  to  go  twenty-five  miles 
to  get  school  books  for  his  children.  The  dealer  ofttimes 
cannot  be  induced  to  put  in  a  liberal  stock,  and  when  this  is 
exhausted,  the  new  supply  is  much  delayed.  As  a  result  of  this 
situation,  schools  are  forced  to  run  for  several  weeks  or  even 
months  with  a  very  inadequate  supply  of  texts.  This  means 
great  loss  in  instruction,  and  delayed  promotion  of  pupils. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  31 

The  only  cure  for  this  condition  is  in  State  owned  text-books. 
By  this  plan  the  State  would  purchase  books  from  the  publishers 
or  their  depository  at  Richmond  at  wholesale  prices,  and  on 
requisition,  furnish  them  to  county  school  boards.  The  latter 
should  have  a  locked  book-case  in  each  school  room  in  which 
the  supply  of  books  for  the  room  would  be  placed  before  the 
opening  day  of  school.  The  books  could  be  given  out  by  the 
teachers  with  proper  direction  for  their  care  and  return  at  the 
end  of  the  term.  The  saving  of  great  loss  in  time  and  in  instruc- 
tion, the  relief  of  parents  from  the  inconvenience  and  expense 
they  now  have,  and  the  saving  of  the  texts  owing  to  the  super- 
vision of  their  care  and  use,  would  in  a  large  measure  remunerate 
the  State  for  the  cost  of  supplying  the  books. 

The  Commission,  therefore,  recommends  that  Act,  1916, 
page  714,  Code  1918,  Section  725,  allowing,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, districts  or  county  school  boards  to  provide  free  school 
books,  be  amended  so  as  to  provide  that  basal  elementary 
text-books  be  furnished  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  on 
requisition  from  the  county  school  board,  and  an  appropriation 
be  made  therefor,  and  that  the  county  school  board  shall  pro- 
vide adequate  means  for  distribution.  No  bill  providing  free 
text-books  accompanies  these  recommendations,  the  Commis- 
sion being  of  the  opinion  that  the  Assembly  of  Virginia  should 
use  its  discretion  as  to  the  time  of  passing  such  a  law. 

(5) .  Teachers'  Salaries.  The  Commission  urges  that  Chapter 
VII  of  the  Survey  Staff's  report  be  read  with  special  care.  The 
condition  of  the  teaching  staff  in  Virginia  is  portrayed  in 
striking  fashion.  Such  topics  as  the  supply  of  teachers,  the 
stability  of  the  force,  the  training  of  teachers,  and  teachers' 
salaries  are  treated  in  such  way  as  to  give  a  just  and  clear 
conception  of  actual  conditions. 

The  Commission  holds  that  it  is  absolutely  futile  to  attempt 
to  develop  a  safe  and  thorough  system  of  training  unless  pro- 
vision is  made  to  guarantee  that  pupils  will  have  thorough 
instruction  under  trained  teachers.  The  quality  of  the  instruc- 
tion to  be  offered  is  the  essential  thing  in  any  system  of  training, 
and  therefore  the  teacher  is  the  real  crux  of  the  whole  system. 
The  wisest  administration  and  the  most  expensive  facilities  may 
amount  to  nothing  unless  there  be  trained  and  capable  teachers 


32  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

in  the  school  rooms.  The  public  apparently  has  not  viewed 
this  question  quite  seriously  enough.  Too  often  a  mere  pretense 
of  training  has  met  with  easy  acceptance.  When  a  school  room 
has  been  provided  and  some  person  put  in  charge,  we  have  been 
prone  to  believe  that  satisfactory  training  will  always  result. 
This  result  will  never  follow  unless  the  person  in  charge  is 
really  a  capable  teacher.  The  Commission  urges  with  the 
greatest  emphasis  that  any  system  of  schools  dependent  upon 
teachers  who  are  not  well  trained  and  qualified  is  dangerous 
and  may  be  positively  pernicious.  It  is  a  very  expensive  pro- 
cedure also  when  the  loss  of  time  and  the  incalculable  loss  of 
character  development  is  considered.  It  is  not,  therefore,  a 
question  whether  the  State  can  afford  to  furnish  good  schools, 
but  whether  the  State  can  withstand  the  inestimable  loss  which 
may  result  from  inefficient  schools.  Civilization  is  progressive 
and  States  move  forward.  Each  generation  must  be  trained  not 
only  to  appreciate  the  inheritance  of  the  past  but  to  make  a 
positive  contribution  to  the  progress  of  the  future.  Boys  and 
girls  must  be  trained  in  their  early  years  how  to  think  and  how 
to  work,  if  they  are  to  be  expected  to  assume  a  leading  place  in 
the  march  of  progress.  Any  State  which  denies  them  this 
training  in  a  serious  and  thorough  fashion,  places  an  insur- 
mountable barrier  to  efficient  citizenship.  It  may  save  a  little 
money  now  merely  to  pay  a  heavy  tribute  to  ignorance  in  the 
future. 

These  are  some  of  the  considerations  which  impel  the  Com- 
mission to  ask  that  the  Legislature,  and  the  people  behind  the 
Legislature,  do  everything  possible  to  put  the  public  school 
system  on  a  higher  and  more  substantial  financial  basis. 

The  teaching  force  in  Virginia,  as  set  forth  in  Chapter  VII,  is 
not  adequate,  is  not  stable,  and  on  the  whole  is  not  well  trained. 
The  one  fundamental  fact  which  has  brought  this  situation 
about  and  which  encourages  it  to  continue,  is  the  inexcusably 
low  salaries  paid  teachers.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  less  native 
ability,  less  patriotism,  or  less  devotion,  it  is  purely  and  simply 
a  matter  of  the  very  low  financial  estimate  placed  on  the  worth 
of  teaching.  Every  other  profession  and  every  class  of  workers, 
even  the  most  unskilled,  have  been  placed  on  a  higher  wage 
scale  than  teachers.    The  State  cannot  offer  the  skilled  service 


.  Report  of  the  Education  Commission  33 

which  the  children  ought  to  have,  on  a  basis  of  pay  so  low  that 
it  would  be  rejected  by  the  lowest  class  of  unskilled  labor. 

The  cost  of  instruction  or  the  pay  of  teachers  is  by  far  the 
largest  item  in  the  expense  of  conducting  a  school  system, 
representing  in  a  well  regulated  budget  about  two-thirds  of  the 
total  expense.  If,  therefore,  this  problem  can  be  met,  most 
other  difficulties  will  disappear.  Table  121  shows  the  amount 
of  money  necessary  to  pay  the  teaching  force  in  Virginia  on 
the  basis  of  several  scales  of  salary.  The  average  pay  for 
school  teachers  throughout  the  United  States  is  $75  per  month 
for  nine  months,  or  $675  per  year.  It  cannot  be  seriously 
argued  that  Virginia  should  pay  qualified  teachers  less  than  the 
average  for  the  country,  and  certainly  no  argument  is  needed 
to  prove  that  Virginia  cannot  secure  qualified  teachers  for  a  less 
amount.  The  Commission,  therefore,  urges  that  the  State  of 
Virginia  make  the  scale  of  salaries  for  teachers  at  least  equal  to 
the  average  for  the  country.  To  do  this  will  require  approxi- 
mately ten  million  dollars  for  instruction  alone,  an  amount 
about  equal  to  the  total  cost  of  the  entire  school  system  for 
the  year  1919-20. 

Under  the  State  law,  all  funds  derived  from  the  State  and 
county  school  taxes  must  be  used  exclusively  for  the  pay  of 
teachers,  while  the  district  fund  is  used  for  the  operation  and 
maintenance  of  the  school  plants.  If  the  county  be  made  the 
unit  of  operation,  as  the  Commission  recommends,  and  if, 
therefore,  the  district  school  taxes  be  combined  with  the  county 
taxes  under  one  levy,  then  the  local  county  tax  must  be  large 
enough  to  provide  for  the  purposes  heretofore  covered  by  county 
and  district  taxes  separately.  In  either  event,  the  State  fund 
and  at  least  one-half  of  the  local  fund  must  be  required  for 
salaries.  Assuming  that  two-thirds  of  the  total  budget  should 
be  used  for  teachers'  salaries,  the  Commission  is  of  the  opinion 
that  approximately  one-third  of  the  total  budget  should  be 
provided  through  State  funds  and  two-thirds  through  local 
funds,  one-half  of  the  latter  being  used  for  instructional  pur- 
poses. The  Commission's  estimate  of  ten  million  dollars  for 
instruction  would  mean  a  total  budget  of  at  least  fifteen  million 
dollars  a  year,  an  amount  substantially  in  agreement  with  the 
estimate  reached  by  the  Survey  Staff  after  a  most  painstaking 


34  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

study  of  this  problem.  Of  this  fifteen  million,  the  State  should 
raise  five  million,  and  one-half  of  the  local  tax  should  produce 
an  equal  amount. 

The  State  contribution  to  the  public  school  system  comes 
now  through  the  capitation  tax,  a  ten-cent  property  tax,  an 
added  four-cent  property  tax,  and  the  cash  appropriation.  The 
amounts  available  under  these  heads  are  as  follows: 

Capitation  and  ten-cent  tax $2,008,472.45 

Four-cent  tax 498,286.42 

Appropriation,  including  high  school  amount         732,850  00 


$3,239,608.87 


This  total  must  be  used  exclusively  for  instructional  purposes. 
The  practical  problem  which  presents  itself  is  how  to  increase 
this  State  fund  to  five  million  dollars.  The  only  source  from 
which  the  school  fund  can  be  raised  is  the  State  tax  and  the 
appropriation  bill.  The  amount  to  be  derived  from  a  State  tax 
is  determined  not  only  by  the  tax  rate  but  fundamentally  by  the 
valuation  of  property.  With  the  present  property  valuation, 
a  school  tax  of  twenty-five  cents  is  imperative.  The  Commis- 
sion insists  that  five  million  dollars  is  the  minimum  State  fund 
which  will  give  promise  of  an  efficient  school  system,  but  it 
believes  that  this  amount  should  be  produced  by  a  lower  tax 
rate  and  a  higher  and  more  equitable  property  valuation. 
Under  no  conditions  can  an  adequate  fund  be  provided  by  a  less 
tax  than  twenty  cents.  If  the  present  State  tax  of  fourteen 
cents  be  increased  to  twenty  cents,  about  $750,000  would  be 
added,  making  a  total  State  fund  of  approximately  four  million 
dollars.  The  Commission  is  urging  at  a  later  point  in  this 
report  an  increase  in  the  appropriation  bill  amounting  to  four 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  which  would  bring  the 
State  fund,  on  the  basis  of  the  present  assessed  values,  to  four 
million,  four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  We  believe 
that  on  the  basis  of  a  fair  and  equitable  property  valuation,  the 
estimates  given  above  will  approximate  the  amount  imperatively 
demanded. 

The  Commission,  therefore,  recommends  that  the  State  tax 
for  school  purposes  to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  pay  of  teachers, 
be  increased  from  fourteen  cents  to  twenty  cents. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  35 

A  large  number  of  States  have  adopted  minimum  salary  laws 
for  school  teachers.  The  general  effect  of  such  a  law  is  to 
increase  salaries.  The  Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  standard  salary  law  for  the  State  of  Virginia, 
provided  minimum  professional  requirements  be  set  up  as  the 
basis  for  the  operation  of  this  law.  The  object  in  mind  is  to 
provide  at  least  a  minimum  quality  of  instruction  for  the 
children,  not  a  minimum  amount  of  pay  for  the  teachers.  The 
effect  of  such  a  law  based  on  reasonable  requirements  will,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Commission,  be  more  salutary  than  a  general 
minimum  salary  law.  The  latter  will  have  to  be  put  at  a 
comparatively  low  figure  and  may  serve  in  many  instances  as 
really  a  maximum  standard.  The  minimum  based  on  quali- 
fications can  be  much  higher  and  will  offer  a  real  inducement 
for  teachers  without  professional  qualifications  to  attain  a 
higher  standard  of  preparation. 

The  Commission  recommends  a  salary  law,  fixing  $900 
as  the  standard  salary  to  be  paid  any  full  time  teacher 
who  has  had  a  regular  course  of  instruction  of  the  grade  equiva- 
lent to  a  four-year  high  school  course,  and  in  addition,  profes- 
sional instruction  equivalent  to  at  least  two  full  sessions  of 
professional  work  at  one  of  the  State  normal  schools.  The 
State  Board  of  Education  shall  adopt  such  a  standard  of 
equivalents  as  will  be  fair  and  just  to  experienced  and  successful 
teachers  now  engaged  in  school  work. 

(6).  Teacher  Training.  The  relation  between  teacher 
training  and  the  administration  and  conduct  of  the  school 
system  is  intimate.  It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  separate  these 
two  departments  of  school  endeavor.  Attention  is  called  to 
Chapter  VIII  of  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff  on  the  training 
of  teachers.  A  careful  study  of  this  chapter  will  indicate  the 
wisdom  of  recommending  that  the  State  normal  schools  be 
placed  under  the  direct  management  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  to  be  constituted  as  recommended  in  this  report, 
and  that  all  powers  now  delegated  to  the  State  Normal  School 
Board  be  assigned  to  the  State  Board  of  Education.  This 
arrangement  will  not  only  make  possible  the  conduct  of  the 
normal  schools  in  more  intimate  connection  with  the  public 
school  sj'stem,  but  will  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  related  problem 


36  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

in  Virginia,  namely,  the  reduction  in  number  of  the  present 
multiplicity  of  boards.  This  recommendation  would  abolish 
the  Normal  School  Board  of  the  normal  schools  for  white 
women,  Act  1914,  page  567,  Code  1918,  Section  940;  and  rescind 
Code  1918,  Sections  947  to  951,  continuing  the  Board  of  the 
Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  for  Negro  Teachers. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  four  normal  schools 
for  the  training  of  white  teachers  shall  offer  a  course  of  trainmg 
three  years  in  length  rather  than  two,  as  at  the  present  time, 
and  that  graduates  shall  be  required  to  teach  in  the  public 
schools  of  this  State  three  years  rather  than  two  as  now  pro- 
vided. The  Commission  also  recommends  the  elimination  of 
school  work  of  secondary  grade  now  offered  at  the  State  normals. 
The  main  excuse  for  giving  this  work  is  that  many  sections  of 
the  State  are  without  high  school  facilities.  While  this  is  true 
of  a  limited  number  of  sections,  yet  the  solution  of  this  problem 
must  be  sought  by  establishing  high  schools  where  they  are 
actually  needed  for  all  of  the  children  of  high  school  age,  rather 
than  by  encouraging  high  school  work  at  normal  schools  where 
it  can  benefit  only  a  small  number  of  the  young  ladies  who  seek 
preparation  as  teachers. 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  Survey  Staff's  report,  Chapter 
VIII,  i  (f),  dealing  with  the  question  of  college  work  offered  at 
the  State  normal  schools.  The  needs  of  trained  teachers  for  the 
elementary  schools  is  so  acute  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Commission,  the  normal  schools  should  be  limited  in  their  sphere 
of  action,  in  order  to  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  and  for  those 
special  courses  which  can  be  offered  in  a  three-year  period. 

Normal  training  departments  in  high  schools  represent  an 
effort  to  meet  the  teacher  shortage  by  encouraging  a  short  term 
and  rather  unsatisfactory  course  of  training.  The  high  school 
teaching  force  is  too  restricted  in  number,  the  term  of  study  too 
brief,  and  the  facilities  for  practice  teaching  are  too  indifferent 
to  guarantee  even  reasonable  returns  from  these  departments. 
The  Commission,  therefore,  commends  the  action  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  in  restricting  and  discouraging  such  normal 
training  course,  and  recommends  the  abolition  of  these  depart- 
ments in  high  schools.  (Act  1918,  page  69,  Code  1918,  Sections 
709  and  711.) 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  37 

Training  teachers  in  the  profession  will  continue  to  be  a  most 
important  factor  in  supplying  qualified  teachers.  Heretofore, 
short  term  courses  in  summer  schools  and  institutes  have  been 
depended  upon  to  accomplish  most  of  this  task.  These  summer 
terms  have  been  offered  at  State  institutions  for  a  period  of  six 
weeks,  and  at  one  or  two  other  localities  for  a  briefer  period. 
The  importance  attached  to  these  brief  courses  has,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Commission,  been  out  of  proportion  to  their 
worth.  A  study  of  the  present  status  of  Negro  teachers  in 
Virginia  would  indicate  that  in  their  case,  short  term  summer 
courses  may  have  to  be  depended  upon  for  some  years  to  come 
as  a  supplement  to  more  serious  effort. 

For  the  benefit,  primarily  of  teachers,  the  Commission 
recommends  that  the  University  and  other  State  institutions  of 
higher  learning  be  placed  on  a  twelve  months'  basis,  offering  a 
summer  quarter  for  men  and  women  of  equal  grade  with  any 
other  quarter.  Degree  credit  shall  be  allowed  for  work  of 
appropriate  grade  done  in  the  summer  quarter  and  for  the 
completion  of  prescribed  courses,  degrees  shall  be  conferred. 

This  quarter  should  be  divided  into  two  terms  of  six  weeks 
each,  at  least  one  of  which  terms  should  be  designed  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  public  school  teachers,  but  both  terms  should  be 
open  to  teachers  who  are  in  a  position  to  take  advantage  of  the 
larger  opportunity  presented. 

From  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  Commission  believes 
that  great  physical  as  well  as  instructional  waste  results  from 
the  practice  of  closing  certain  State  institutions  during  the 
summer.  The  imperative  need  for  a  larger  number  of  prepared 
teachers  and  the  unusual  opportunity  which  a  summer  quarter 
offers,  confirms  the  Commission  in  its  belief  that  State  institu- 
tions should  be  run  at  full  time  capacity. 

(7).  High  Schools.  In  1906  it  was  recognized  that  one  of  the 
chief  defects  of  the  rural  school  system  was  the  lack  of  high 
school  facilities.  The  Assembly  of  that  year  passed  an  act 
appropriating  $50,000  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  high  schools,  which  appropriation  was  increased  the  following 
session  to  8100,000.  A  campaign  was  carried  on  in  Virginia  to 
encourage  the  people  to  see  the  need  of  secondary  school 
facilities,  and  to  this  the  people  responded  with  great  interest 
and  enthusiasm.    From  1906  to  the  present  time,  the  number  of 


38  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

high  schools  has  increased  from  133  to  665.    Automatically  the 
amount  of  money  which  the  State  Board  has  available  for  any 
one  high  school  has  been  so  much  decreased  as  to  be  of  little 
material  assistance.     The  Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that 
while  high  schools  ought  not  to  be  excluded  from  participation 
in  the  general  school  fund,  yet  this  participation  should  be 
guarded  in  such  way  that  in  no  circumstances  will  the  develop- 
ment of  elementary  schools  be  handicapped  by  the  growth  of 
high  schools.    The  per  capita  cost  of  a  pupil  in  the  high  school 
grades  is  naturally  much  larger  than  in  the  elementary  schools, 
and  if  the  entire  school  fund  be  distributed  with  proportionate 
consideration  for  high  school  work,  the  children  of  the  lower 
grades  will  be  seriously  hindered  in  their  progress.     It  seems, 
therefore,  to  be  a  very  wise  provision  in  the  law  of  1906  which 
makes  a  direct  appropriation  for  high  school  work.    This  serves 
two  purposes:    It  develops  the  high  schools  and  protects  the 
elementary  schools.     While  the  number  of  high  schools  has 
increased  over  four  hundred  per  cent  since  the  earlier  period, 
the  appropriation  has  remained  the  same.     The  Commission 
recommends  an  appropriation  for  high  school  work  sufficient  to 
guarantee  the  proper  development  of  high  schools  without 
retarding  in  any  fashion  the  elementary  grades.     The  appro- 
priation must  be  large  enough  to  enable  the  State  Board  to 
send  to  a  given  school  a  sum  sufficient  to  aid  it  materially  in 
maintaining  high  school  standards.    The  Commission,  therefore, 
recommends  that  the  Act  of  1906,  page  350,  entitled,   "An 
Act  to  establish  and  maintain  high  schools  and  to  appropriate 
money  therefor,"  and  Code  1918,  Sections  705-708,  be  amended 
so  as  to  provide: 

a.  An  appropriation  of  $400,000,  which  under  proper  regu- 
lation, the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  use  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  high  schools  in  the  counties  and  cities  of  the  State. 

b.  A  provision  that  the  elementary  schools  of  the  district  or 
county  or  city  must  be  maintained  for  a  term  of  at  least  eight 
months. 

c.  The  local  school  board  shall,  from  local  funds,  appropriate 
for  high  school  teachers'  salaries  an  amount  at  least  equal  to 
the  appropriation  by  the  State. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  39 

d.  No  teacher  shall  be  employed  in  high  school  instruction 
whose  qualifications  do  not  meet  the  standards  set  up  by  the 
State  Board. 

e.  The  State  Board  of  Education  shall  appropriate  to  the 
standard  four-year  high  schools  an  amount  not  to  exceed  $1,200, 
or  to  the  two-year  high  schools,  organized  on  the  plan  prepared 
for  the  rural  junior  high  schools,  an  amount  not  to  exceed 
$1,000,  provided  that  of  the  local  appropriation  to  match  the 
State  appropriation  for  junior  high  schools,  an  amount  not  to 
exceed  two-fifths  of  the  local  amount  may  be  used  to  purchase 
special  equipment  needed  in  schools  of  this  type. 

(8).  Vocational  Education.  The  Commission  desires  to 
emphasize  the  necessity  of  further  developing  training  in  the 
practical  arts  and  vocational  education.  Agriculture,  or  agri- 
cultural instruction,  should  receive  distinct  emphasis.  The 
departments  of  vocational  agriculture,  conducted  with  the  aid 
of  Federal  funds,  should  be  continued  and  encouraged.  Training 
in  trades  and  industries  has  been  undertaken  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education,  and  for  the  current  session  a  number  of  courses 
have  been  set  up  in  the  cities  of  the  State.  Likewise,  home 
economics  is  now  being  encouraged,  but  very  unfortunately, 
the  provisions  of  the  Federal  bill  make  liberal  appropriation  to 
home  economics  impossible,  and  render  difficult  the  conditions 
under  which  the  work  is  given. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  Act,  Assembly  1918, 
page  131,  to  provide  for  the  acceptance  of  the  conditions  of  the 
Federal  act  to  encourage  vocational  education  be  passed  at  the 
Assembly  of  1920,  with  amendments  which  will  make  the  State 
appropriation  sufficient  to  match  the  Federal  aid  for  the  period 
1920  to  1922.  For  the  specific  encouragement  of  training  in 
home  economics,  made  impracticable  under  the  Federal  law, 
the  Commission  recommends  that  $15,000  of  the  high  school 
appropriation  may  be  used  by  the  State  Board  of  Education 
in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  departments  of  home 
economics. 

The  present  appropriation  bill  carried  $25,000  to  encourage 
building  and  equipment  to  be  used  for  vocational  education. 
It  is  provided  also  that  this  amount  be  distributed  from  the 
Virginia    Polytechnic    Institute.      Vocational    education    in 


40  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

Virginia  is  organized  and  directed  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education  acting  as  a  State  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

The  Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that  all  funds  voted  by  the 
Assembly  for  the  development  of  vocational  education  in  sec- 
ondary schools  should  be  distributed  through  the  State  Board. 
There  is  no  good  reason  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commission 
for  the  825,000  above  referred  to  to  be  distributed  in  any  other 
manner.  We,  therefore,  recommend  an  amendment  to  the 
approbriation  bill  to  provide  that  $25,000  for  building  and 
equipment  for  vocational  education  be  distributed  by  the  State 
Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

The  development  of  commercial  education,  under  standards 
no  less  high  than  those  fixed  for  college  preparatory  courses, 
is  recommended.  It  is  the  serious  judgment  of  the  Commission 
that  short-cut  and  indifferent  courses  of  instruction  in  com- 
mercial training  are  inimical  to  the  best  interests  both  of  the 
pupils  who  take  the  courses  and  of  the  business  interests  they 
attempt  to  serve. 

(9).  Physical  Training,  Sanitation.  Particular  attention  is 
invited  by  the  Commission  to  Chapter  XII,  which  sets  forth 
the  condition  pertaining  to  health  and  sanitation.  No  matter 
of  public  concern  demands  more  earnest  consideration  than  the 
health  of  the  children  and  of  the  people  of  the  community. 
The  school  room  may  be  a  place  for  the  positive  physical 
development  of  children,  or  through  carelessness  and  indiffer- 
ence, it  may  become  a  perfect  hotbed  for  the  breeding  of 
disease.  Physical  education  is  now  recognized  not  as  something 
secondary  or  even  auxiliary,  but  as  a  most  important  part  of 
the  training  for  citizenship.  In  order  for  the  State  to  receive 
its  full  share  of  benefit  from  the  scheme  of  training,  there  must 
be  reasonable  guarantee  that  the  citizens  will  be  strong  and 
healthy  physically.  They  will  thus  become  an  added  force  to 
the  community,  and  not  a  burden.  The  Commission  urges 
that  county  boards  of  supervisors  and  county  school  boards 
adopt  measures  for  the  proper  inspection  of  school  and  home 
premises  in  order  to  enforce  the  elementary  laws  of  sanitation; 
that  provision  be  made  for  the  medical  inspection  of  school 
children,  either  by  physicians  or  trained  nurses;  and  that  a 
system  of  health  record  cards  and  reports  be  instituted  in  order 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  41 

that  parents  may  be  notified  of  those  physical  defects  which 
may  escape  their  attention,  but  which  are  apparent  to  the 
practiced  eye  of  a  physician  or  nurse.  Provisions  should  be 
made  for  the  service  of  a  competent  person,  who,  under  the  joint 
control  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  the  Department  of 
Health,  should  have  general  direction  of  definite  work  in  physical 
education  for  the  children  and  sanitation  for  the  community. 

(10).  Education  of  Negroes.  The  people  of  Virginia  should 
think  very  seriously  about  the  present  status  and  needs  of  the 
schools  for  Negroes.  While  the  improvement  in  recent  years 
has  been  noticeable  and  in  a  few  features  rather  remarkable, 
yet  on  the  whole,  the  situation  of  the  Negro  schools  is  far  from 
satisfactory.  They  suffer  from  the  same  defects  as  noted  in 
the  case  of  the  schools  for  white  children,  but  to  a  more  serious 
degree.  Shortage  of  trained  teachers,  brief  terms,  poor  salaries, 
and  lack  of  physical  equipment  constitute  the  problem  to  be 
solved. 

It  is  peculiarly  necessary  that  the  teachers  in  the  Negro 
schools  be  well  trained  and  wisely  directed.  To  entrust  these 
children  to  slip-shod  and  haphazard  instruction  is  dangerous. 
The  Commission  recommends  the  immediate  improvement  of 
the  facilities  for  training  Negro  teachers.  The  Virginia  Normal 
and  Industrial  Institute  should  have  an  appropriation  sufficient 
to  install  at  once  certain  improvements  necessitated  by  the 
unsanitary  conditions  of  the  school.  A  more  liberal  allowance 
should  be  made  for  faculty  in  order  that  instruction  in  methods 
and  practice  teaching  may  be  further  developed.  The  salaries 
of  Negro  teachers  in  the  public  schools  must  certainly  be 
increased.  As  long  as  a  Negro  woman  can  make  more  money 
in  any  ordinary  field  of  labor  than  she  can  make  by  teaching 
school,  an  insurmountable  handicap  will  be  placed  on  the 
development  of  teachers.  It  is  most  important  that  Negro 
supervisors  be  employed  in  larger  numbers  than  at  present  in 
order  to  direct  the  efforts  of  the  teachers.  The  number  of 
county  training  schools  for  Negro  teachers  should  be  increased 
and  the  work  ought  to  be  placed  on  a  surer  basis. 

The  Commission,  therefore,  recommends  that  an  amount  of 
money  from  local  taxes  more  nearly  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  Negro  children  in  a  locality  be  used  for  the  training  of  these 


42  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

children.  It  recommends  further  a  liberal  co-operation  on  the 
part  of  county  supervisors  and  school  boards  in  the  maintenance 
of  rural  supervisors  and  in  the  establishment  of  county  training 
schools  for  Negro  teachers.  Particularly  does  the  Commission 
urge  that  the  physical  training  of  the  Negro  children  be  very 
carefully  developed,  and  that  the  sanitary  arrangements  of  the 
school  houses  and  homes  for  Negroes  be  observed  with  unusual 
care  in  order  to  guarantee  that  such  conditions  may  never 
become  a  menace  to  public  health. 

(11).  Rural  schools.  The  small  rural  school,  particularly  of 
the  one-  and  two-room  type,  presents  the  great  problem  in 
Virginia.  This  problem  is  carefully  treated  in  Chapter  XV  of 
the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff.  Education  in  our  larger  cities  and 
centers  of  population  is  developing  as  rapidly  as  circumstances 
will  permit,  yet  in  too  many  rural  sections  of  Virginia,  progress 
has  not  been  noteworthy.  There  are  over  six  thousand  one-  and 
two-room  schools  in  the  State.  Many  of  them  in  the  course  of 
time  may  be  eliminated  by  the  natural  processes  of  consolidation, 
but  it  is  too  much  to  hope  that  consolidation  will  ever  prove  the 
solution  of  the  entire  problem.  The  schools  must  be  developed 
by  being  put  upon  a  basis  of  practical  operation  with  a  possible 
schedule  of  work.  The  grade  of  instruction  in  these  schools  is, 
as  in  the  case  of  all  other  schools,  the  most  serious  aspect  of  the 
problem.  With  them  the  condition  is  peculiarly  unfortunate, 
because  a  combination  of  circumstances  has  encouraged  the 
best  teachers  to  go  to  the  centers  of  population,  leaving,  in  most 
instances,  the  less  prepared  teachers  for  the  rural  schools.  The 
actual  teaching  and  conduct  of  such  schools  are  most  difficult. 
A  situation,  therefore,  has  developed  in  which  the  positions 
needing  the  strongest  and  best  prepared  teachers  are  being 
filled  often  by  those  least  prepared. 

The  recommendation  of  the  Commission  for  a  substantial 
increase  in  the  amount  for  teachers'  salaries  will  materially 
better  the  condition  in  the  rural  schools.  In  addition  to  this 
increase,  however,  the  Commission  recommends  that  local 
boards  fix  a  bonus  for  teachers  in  one-  and  two-room  country 
schools  in  order  to  compensate  them  for  the  heavier  burdens 
assumed,  and  the  more  difficult  conditions  of  work. 

The  Commission  also  recommends  that  the  course  of  study 
in  the  one-room  schools  be  limited  as  far  as  possible  to  the  first 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  43 

five  grades,  and  in  the  two-room  schools  to  seven  grades.  There 
is  a  laudable  ambition  now  to  establish  high  school  work  con- 
venient to  all  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  State.  This  ambition 
should  be  satisfied  just  as  soon  as  it  can  be,  but  no  attempt 
should  be  made  to  give  high  school  work  to  the  few  pupils  in 
the  advanced  grades  at  the  expense  of  the  very  large  number  of 
pupils  belonging  to  the  elementary  grades. 

Again  in  the  case  of  the  one-  and  two-room  schools,  the 
practice  of  strict  gradation  seems  to  work  a  disadvantage  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  classes  and  reducing  the  time  allot- 
ment. The  Commission  recommends  the  adoption  of  a  plan  of 
grouping  the  subjects  whereby  pupils  studying  the  same  subjects 
and  of  approximately  the  same  degree  of  advancement  shall  be 
thrown  together.  It  is  imperative  that  the  teacher  have 
sufficient  time  to  do  a  reasonable  amount  of  individual  work 
and  to  supervise  the  study  as  well  as  the  recitation  period. 
Certain  practical  arrangements  which  will  make  this  possible 
ought  to  be  followed. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  should  be  encouraged  in  its 
policy  of  assisting  in  the  employment  of  rural  supervisors.  This 
is  one  of  the  best  means  of  training  teachers  in  the  profession, 
and  at  the  same  time  of  guaranteeing  to  pupils  a  far  better 
grade  of  instruction  than  could  otherwise  be  secured.  The 
Commission  urges  that  the  field  of  work  for  any  one  supervisor 
be  sufficiently  limited  to  permit  of  intensive  supervision  in  the 
rural  schools.  The  Commission  recommends  that  the  present 
appropriation  of  $250,000  for  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
special  supervision  thereof  be  increased  to  §400,000. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  is  wisely  undertaking  a  reor- 
ganization of  the  types  of  rural  schools  in  such  way  as  to  provide 
for  elementary  schools,  junior  high  schools,  and  standard  high 
schools.  The  theory  of  this  plan  is  to  establish  elementary 
schools  reasonably  convenient  to  all  the  boys  and  girls  of  the 
State,  a  smaller  number  of  junior  high  schools,  to  which  those 
completing  the  elementary  schools  can  go,  and  a  limited  number 
of  four-year  high  schools.  The  problem  would  be  comparatively 
easy  to  work  out  as  an  original  proposition,  but  it  is  now  made 
difficult  of  solution  by  the  fact  that  the  location  of  schools  has 
heretofore  been  usually  determined  by  the  lines  of  the  school 


44  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

district  rather  than  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  whole  county. 
Reference  is  made  to  the  "Manual  and  Courses  of  Study  for  the 
High  Schools  of  Virginia,"  recently  published  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education.  Very  careful  attention  is  also  invited  to 
Chapter  XVI  of  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff.  The  recom- 
mendations of  this  chapter,  so  far  as  practicable,  can  be  carried 
out  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  without  specific  statute 
law. 

(12).  Division  Superintendents.  The  development  of  public 
schools  in  any  city  or  county  will  depend  in  large  measure  upon 
the  division  superintendent.  Under  the  present  arrangement, 
his  leadership  and  influence  form  a  determining  factor,  and 
under  the  rearrangement  of  local  school  administration  proposed 
by  this  Commission,  the  importance  of  the  office  is  enhanced. 
In  practically  any  scheme  of  local  control,  the  training,  experi- 
ence and  devotion  of  the  superintendent  will  largely  fix  the  rate 
of  school  progress.  If  the  teacher  is  the  crux  of  the  system,  the 
superintendent  is  the  key  man. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  has  made  a  beginning  toward 
fixing  the  standards  of  qualifications  required  for  efficient  super- 
vision. Even  as  a  minimum  basis  these  standards  are  too  low. 
Table  115,  showing  the  education  and  training  of  superin- 
tendents, indicates  a  fair  degree  of  academic  education,  but  not 
so  favorable  a  standard  in  professional  and  administrative 
training. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  State  Board  of 
Education  raise  the  qualifications  for  the  position  of  division 
superintendent  to  a  standard  more  nearly  in  accord  with  the 
importance  of  the  service  to  be  rendered. 

The  salary  question,  as  it  relates  to  division  superintendents, 
is  relatively  almost  as  serious  as  in  the  case  of  school  teachers. 
It  is  an  actual  fact  that  all  of  the  division  superintendents  in 
the  State  combined  receive  less  money  for  supervising  the 
schools  than  is  paid  to  treasurers  for  handling  the  school  funds. 
If  the  amount  paid  treasurers  is  reasonably  fair  and  proper, 
certainly  the  amount  paid  superintendents  is  entirely  inade- 
quate.   This  is  a  situation  which  should  be  remedied  at  once. 

Table  116  shows  that  twelve  superintendents  receive  less 
than  $1,000  and  that  more  than  one-half  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  less  than  $1,500.     It  is  impossible  for  the  State  to 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  45 

secure  and  hold  the  services  of  qualified  men  at  the  salaries  now- 
offered.  In  order  to  make  the  situation  more  discouraging  there 
is  a  provision  in  the  law  against  increasing  the  salary  of  a 
superintendent  during  his  term  of  office.  If  the  qualifications 
of  superintendents  must  reach  a  standard  somewhat  in  accord 
with  the  importance  of  the  office,  then  certainly  the  scale  of 
salary  must  be  very  materially  increased.  The  method  of 
computing  the  superintendent's  salary,  Section  626  in  the 
revised  Code,  is  illogical  and  unsatisfactory.  The  general  popu- 
lation of  a  county  is  not  the  proper  basis  on  which  to  calculate 
the  salary.  The  number  of  schools  to  visit,  the  number  of 
teachers  to  supervise,  and  the  percentage  of  daily  attendance, 
and  related  features  are  factors  far  more  pertinent  than  popu- 
lation in  determining  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  and  in 
fixing  its  value. 

Under  the  present  plan,  the  relatively  small  salary  fixed  by 
the  above  section  and  paid  by  the  State  may  be  supplemented 
by  the  local  council  or  board  of  supervisors  or  local  school 
boards  in  accordance  with  Code,  Section  1438,  Code,  1918, 
Section  626.  There  is  no  definite  requirement  in  the  law  that 
such  a  supplement  must  be  made  nor  is  there  any  legal  limita- 
tion to  the  amount.  The  result  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  total 
salaries  paid  superintendents  of  divisions  requiring  about  the 
same  amount  of  work.  In  fact,  certain  counties  which  need  the 
most  efficient  supervision,  render  this  difficult  by  providing  only 
a  small  supplement  to  the  salary. 

Division  superintendents,  now  appointed  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education,  must  depend  on  local  boards  for  over  half  their 
salaries.  The  way  is  open  for  the  local  board  practically  to 
nullify  the  action  of  the  State  Board  by  withholding  the  local 
supplement  altogether.  Again  influence  rather  than  professional 
equipment  may  determine  the  amount  of  the  local  contribution 
to  the  salary.  The  plan  for  providing  the  local  supplement  is 
about  as  unsatisfactory  as  the  method  of  computing  the  State 
salary. 

The  salary  of  the  division  superintendent  should  be  fixed  by 
the  State  on  some  basis  which  would  reflect  the  amount  of  work 
to  be  done,  would  produce  desirable  uniformity  among  divisions 
of  relatively  the  same  size,  and  at  the  same  time  would  permit 
under  limitations  a  margin  to  be  fixed  by  local  supplement. 


46  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  Commission  recommends  that  Code  1918,  Section  626, 
be  amended  to  provide  that  the  minimum  salary  paid  any 
division  superintendent  employed  for  his  full  time  be  $1,800, 
which  salary  shall  be  fixed  for  school  divisions  having  an  average 
daily  school  attendance  of  1,500  or  less,  provided  that  in  certain 
small  cities  or  towns  which  constitute  a  separate  school  division, 
the  superintendent  may  by  the  express  permission  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  act  as  principal  of  the  high  school,  or  under- 
take related  school  work,  in  which  case  not  more  than  one-half 
the  above  minimum  of  $1,800  shall  be  paid  him  as  division 
superintendent,  and  provided  further  that  no  non-city  or 
town  shcool  division  shall  be  formed  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education  the  average  daily  attendance  of  which  is  less  than 
1,200. 

The  division  superintendent  shall  receive  in  addition  to  the 
minimum  of  $1,800,  twenty  dollars  per  hundred  for  each 
hundred  in  average  daily  attendance  over  1,500  up  to  and 
including  6,000,  and  for  each  hundred  in  attendance  over  6,000, 
he  shall  receive  ten  dollars  per  hundred,  allowing  in  each  com- 
putation numbers  in  excess  of  fifty  to  count  as  the  next  higher 
even  100. 

One-half  of  the  salary  thus  determined  shall  be  paid  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  on  vouchers  drawn  on  the  Second 
Auditor  as  other  State  school  funds  are  paid,  and  the  other  half 
shall  be  paid  by  city  or  town  councils  or  county  boards  of 
supervisors  out  of  the  general  funds  of  the  city  or  county,  or  by 
the  school  boards  out  of  local  school  funds. 

The  local  school  board  may,  out  of  the  local  school  fund, 
supplement  this  salary  or  provide  for  traveling  and  office 
expenses  of  the  superintendent,  provided  the  amounts  and 
purposes  for  which  the  amounts  are  designed  be  reported  to 
and  be  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  provision  in  the  Code,  Section  626, 
that  the  salary  of  the  division  superintendent  shall  not  be 
increased  or  diminished  during  his  term  of  office,  be  rescinded. 

(13) .  Financial  Support.  The  most  serious  problem  of  public 
education  in  Virginia  is  to  provide  sufficient  funds  for  the  main- 
tenance of  efficient  training  and  to  adopt  such  a  plan  of  adminis- 
tration and  control  as  will  guarantee  the  wisest  and  most 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  47 

economical  use  of  the  funds.  Up  to  this  point,  the  Commission 
has  dealt  primarily  with  the  latter  phase  of  this  problem.  We 
now  come  to  a  brief  treatment  of  the  fundamental  question  of 
financial  support. 

Virginia  undertook  the  tremendous  task  of  public  education 
when  her  treasury  was  depleted.  The  obligation  was  too  great 
and  pressing,  however,  to  permit  the  weight  of  the  burden  to 
deter  the  undertaking.  The  beginnings  of  public  education  were 
rather  crude  and  the  financial  basis  of  operation  was  limited. 
This  narrow  conception  of  the  cost  of  education  has  to  some 
degree  endured  to  the  present  time.  In  earlier  years,  the 
people  in  Virginia  who  patronized  private  academies,  had  a 
practical  means  of  gauging  what  good  training  cost.  The 
minimum  charge  for  tuition  alone  in  the  academies  and  semi- 
naries of  the  State  was  $90  per  capita.  Education  is  one  of  the 
great  public  concerns  which  experience  has  shown  can  be  more 
economically  administered  by  the  State  than  through  individual 
effort  and  initiative.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  low  cost  under 
which  the  State  cannot  safely  and  judiciously  go.  After  making 
all  allowances  for  the  economies  which  may  be  practiced  through 
combined  effort,  it  should  not  be  seriously  thought  that  the  per 
capita  cost  of  training  can  be  reduced  from  $90  to  about  $11. 
The  patrons  of  schools  and  the  public  generally  should  reflect 
very  seriously  on  this  matter  in  order  that  they  may  become 
more  cognizant  of  what  is  a  fair  cost  for  good  educational 
advantages.  To  attempt  to  carry  on  a  system  of  education  on 
a  cheap  basis  is  apt  to  produce  a  cheap  sort  of  education.  This, 
as  urged  heretofore,  is  a  danger  rather  than  a  bulwark  to 
democracy. 

Chapter  XXI  of  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff,  Section  ii, 
presents  in  forcible  fashion  the  financial  needs  of  the  schools. 
Studious  attention  is  called  to  this  section.  The  amount  needed 
for  the  school  system  may  be  estimated  in  a  number  of  ways. 

On  the  basis  of  the  per  capita  cost  of  pupils  enrolled,  the 
important  consideration  is  to  determine  what  is  a  fair  per 
capita  cost.  As  shown  above,  the  private  system  of  education 
could  under  no  circumstances  devote  less  per  capita  for  instruc- 
tion than  $90  for  nine  months,  or  approximately  $10  per  month. 
A  number  of  school   systems  have  attempted  to  maintain 


48  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

instruction  on  a  per  capita  as  small  as  $10  or  $12  per  year.  The 
failure  to  make  anything  approaching  satisfactory  provision  on 
this  basis  indicates  that  such  a  minimum  should  not  be  seriously 
considered.  Throughout  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  per  capita 
cost  of  instruction,  based  on  average  daily  attendance,  will 
average  from  $25  to  $30;  based  on  enrolment,  from  $20  to  $25. 
If  $20  per  pupil  be  allowed  for  teachers'  salaries  and  $30  be 
estimated  to  cover  the  entire  cost  of  operating  the  schools,  on 
the  basis  of  500,000  pupils,  the  total  cost  will  be  $15,000,000. 

The  Survey  Staff,  making  its  estimate  on  the  basis  of  aggre- 
gate days'  attendance,  and  considering  very  carefully  all  the 
features  of  the  problem,  recommends  for  instructional  purposes 
about  $10,000,000  and  for  all  purposes,  including  operation  and 
outlay,  $16,666,000. 

It  is  possible  to  estimate  this  problem  also  on  the  basis  of  a 
unit  of  cost,  said  unit  to  be  one  teacher,  one  school  room  for 
thirty  pupils,  with  an  estimate  of  all  items  of  expense  for 
operation  and  maintenance. 

If  the  teacher's  salary  be  $675  and  all  items  of  operation, 
such  as  cost  of  upkeep  for  the  room,  fuel,  water,  school- supplies, 
pro  rata  amount  of  superintendent's  salary,  and  all  other 
expenses  of  control,  etc.,  be  about  $330,  the  unit  cost  will  be 
$1,000.  It  is  estimated  that  15,000  such  units  would  be 
required  for  the  efficient  operation  of  the  schools  in  Virginia, 
which  would  make  a  total  cost  of  $15,000,000. 

From  the  various  view  points,  then,  it  seems  to  be  evident 
that  the  minimum  estimate  of  the  cost  of  an  efficient  school 
system  in  Virginia  is  $15,000,000.  The  Survey  Staff  estimates 
$16,666,000,  which  amount  includes  about  $1,500,000  for  perma- 
nent outlay.  The  most  important  aspect  of  this  problem  is  to 
devise  the  means  of  raising  this  sum.  The  Commission  has 
already  pointed  out  that  approximately  one-third  of  the  total 
amount  should  be  provided  by  State  tax,  and  two-thirds  by  local 
taxation,  one-half  of  the  latter  to  be  used  exclusively  to  match 
the  State  appropriation  in  the  payment  of  the  salaries  of 
teachers.  In  the  discussion  of  teachers'  salaries,  the  Commis- 
sion has  shown  in  some  detail  the  only  means  of  increasing  the 
State  aid  for  schools,  namely,  through  an  increase  in  the  State 
tax  from  fourteen  to  twenty  cents,  and  the  most  liberal  possible 
increase  in  the  cash  appropriation  bill. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  49 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  that  provision  be  made  for 
State  instructional  funds  to  be  determined  annually  or  bien- 
nially on  the  basis  of  not  less  than  eight  cents  per  hundred  of 
the  aggregate  days'  attendance,  seven-eighths  of  that  fund  to 
be  set  apart  as  a  general  instructional  fund  to  be  apportioned  to 
all  counties  and  cities,  and  one-eighth  to  be  set  apart  as  a 
special  relief  fund  for  aid  to  needy  counties  and  cities.  This 
plan  would  automatically  provide  for  the  expansion  (or  con- 
traction) of  the  State  school  fund  in  accordance  .with  the 
annually  estimated  needs  of  the  schools.  While  the  Commission 
believes  that  it  would  be  extremely  well  to  provide  some  auto- 
matic basis  for  increasing  State  funds,  it  is  of  the  opinion  that 
said  funds  should  be  raised  by  a  fixed  tax  rather  than  by  means 
of  any  variable.  Automatic  increases  which  may  be  necessary 
should  be  cared  for  primarily  by  the  increase  in  local  funds,  and 
in  a  secondary  way  through  the  natural  gain  to  be  derived  from 
the  increase  in  property  values. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  general  State  fund  for 
instructional  purposes  be  distributed  to  counties  and  cities  and 
towns  on  approximately  the  following  basis : 

An  amount  not  to  exceed  five  per  cent  of  the  total  fund  to  be 
used  as  a  special  relief  fund.    Of  the  remainder — 

(a) .  One-third  on  the  average  daily  attendance,  or  aggregate 
days'  attendance; 

(6).    One-third  on  the  number  of  teachers  employed; 

(c).  One-third  on  the  basis  of  the  adequacy  of  the  local  sup- 
port, according  to  regulations  to  be  adopted  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education. 

Attention  has  already  been  directed  to  the  possible  change  in 
local  taxes,  on  the  condition  that  the  county  become  the  unit 
of  operation.  Recommendation  has  been  made  that  the  local 
school  board,  elected  by  the  people,  should  fix  the  amount  of 
the  local  levy  and  that  it  be  collected  as  other  taxes  by  the 
board  of  supervisors.  A  great  handicap  to  local  development,  is 
the  constitutional  maximum  of  five  mills,  which  is  entirely 
inadequate  and  which  many  of  the  counties  of  the  State  have 
expressed  a  strong  desire  to  exceed.  With  this  limit  removed, 
the  way  would  be  open  for  the  local  boards  to  levy  such  taxes 


50  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

as  will  be  necessary  to  meet  local  needs.  The  board  elected  by 
the  people  as  proposed,  would  have  a  constitutional  right  to  lay 
the  levy  and  would  be  held  directly  responsible  for  the  wise 
expenditure  of  the  school  fund. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  constitutional  amend- 
ment removing  the  five  mill  limit  passed  in  1918,  be  passed  by 
the  Assembly  of  1920,  and  that  provision  be  made  for  the  earliest 
possible  opportunity  for  the  people  to  vote  upon  this  amend- 
ment. 

The  Commission  further  recommends  that  the  local  school 
board  be  required  to  prepare  and  publish  annually  a  definite 
and  precise  school  budget  as  the  basis  for  the  levy  to  be  fixed. 
This  budget  should  exhibit  separately  the  amounts  for  overhead 
and  general  control,  for  teachers'  salaries  and  other  items  of 
instruction,  for  operation,  for  maintenance,  for  auxiliary 
agencies,  and  for  capitalization. 

It  is  the  serious  conviction  of  the  Commission  that  the  funda- 
mental problem  in  adequate  support  to  the  State's  institutions 
can  be  solved  only  by  an  increase  and  a  fair  equalization  of 
property  values  over  the  State.  The  assessed  valuation  of 
property  in  too  many  instances  bears  little  or  no  relation  to  the 
real  or  market  values  and  the  consequent  returns  from  taxation 
are  too  small  to  support  in  adequate  fashion  our  great  public 
interests.  The  widest  variations,  too,  are  seen  in  the  assessed 
values  of  the  same  class  of  property  in  the  various  sections  of 
the  State. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Commission  for  the  financial 
support  of  the  schools  are  based  on  the  assumption  that  prop- 
erty values  shall  be  fixed  on  a  fair  and  equitable  basis,  as  required 
in  the  Constitution,  otherwise  the  funds  to  be  derived  from 
taxation  will  not  begin  to  meet  the  imperative  needs  of  the 
public  school  system. 

III. — OTHER  AMENDMENTS 

1.  The  Commission  recommends  that  Code  1918,  Section 
703,  be  amended  to  provide  that  school  boards  may  charge  for 
high  school  pupils  who  come  from  beyond  the  county,  or  from 
outside  the  district  so  long  as  the  latter  remains  the  unit  of 
administration,  a  tuition  based  upon  the  actual  per  capita  cost. 


Report  of  the  Education  Commission  51 

The  present  limit  of  $2.50  per  month  in  some  instances  would 
force  a  district  board  to  admit  pupils  from  beyond  the  district 
at  a  lower  tuition  charge  than  those  living  within  the  district 
may  be  called  upon  to  pay. 

2.  It  is  recommended  that  the  State  establish  under  the 
control  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  an  institution  for 
mentally  deficient  children;  that  the  School  for  the  Deaf  and 
Blind  be  operated  as  a  part  of  the  public  school  system  and  be 
placed  under  the  administrative  control  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education;  that  the  Reform  School,  located  at  Laurel,  be 
converted  into  an  educational  institution  with  only  secondary 
importance  attached  to  its  industrial  features,  and  that  it  be 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

3.  It  is  recommended  that  Code  1918,  Section  615,  be 
amended  by  striking  out  the  provision  that  no  public  school  fund 
shall  be  paid  to  any  division  superintendent  of  schools  or  district 
school  trustee  for  the  expenses  of  attending  any  educational 
conference  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  except  that  the  State 
Board  may  provide  out  of  the  school  funds  for  the  expenses  of 
division  superintendents  for  one  conference  per  year  to  be  held 
at  some  point  in  the  State. 

4.  The  Commission  recommends  a  statute  to  provide  that 
members  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  receive  a  per 
diem  of  ten  dollars  in  addition  to  an  amount  necessary  to  cover 
their  actual  expenses  incurred  by  attendance  upon  the  meetings 
of  the  State  Board. 

5.  A  statute  is  also  recommended  to  provide  that  no  degree 
can  be  conferred  by  any  of  the  State  institutions  of  higher 
learning  unless  such  institution  has  been  approved  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  as  meeting  the  requirements  fixed  for 
standard  colleges. 

The  Commission  in  the  foregoing  report  has  presented  for 
consideration  only  those  matters  which  are  considered  to  be  of 
immediate  importance.  A  number  of  other  valuable  recom- 
mendations are  contained  in  the  report  of  the  Survey  Staff. 
Many  of  these  have  been  omitted  from  the  Commission  report 
not  because  the  Commission  is  in  disagreement  with  these 


52  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

recommendations,  but  for  the  simple  reason  that  we  desire  to 
emphasize  a  comparatively  few  matters  of  primary  importance 
rather  than  to  present  a  long  list  of  suggested  changes  in  the  law. 
Careful  attention  is  invited  to  all  the  recommendations  con- 
tained in  the  Survey  Staff's  report. 

C.  O'CONOR  GOOLRICK. 

Blake  T.  Newton. 
Charles  H.  Rolston. 
Bessie  P.  Taylor. 
Charles  G.  Maphis. 
Harris  Hart,  President. 
Franklin  Williams,  Secretary. 


APPROPRIATIONS  AND  EXPENDITURES,  VIRGINIA 
EDUCATION  COMMISSION 

Appropriation  authorized  to  be  expanded  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education $10,000.00 

Expenditures 

Expenses  of  Commission $$    325.03 

Director  of  Survey  Committee — Salary 4,500.00 

Director's  traveling  Expenses 488.27 

Field  Staff 738.67 

Stenographers 809.00 

Clerical  service 277 .  06 

Stationery,  Printing,  etc 183 .  14 

Postage,  telephone  and  telegrams 58. 48 

Miscellaneous  expenses 80. 11 

Total $  7,459.76 

Reserved  for  printing  report 2,540.24 

$10,000.00 

DEPARTMENT  OF  TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS 

Appropriation  by  the  General  Education  Board  of 
New  York $12,500 .00 

Expenditures 

Salaries $  5,366 .  67 

Traveling  expenses  of  Staff 2,596 .  76 

Field  Staff,  stenographers,  clerks,  stationery, 

printing,  postage,  telephones,  telegrams,  etc...  3,042.58 

Total $11,006.0 1 

Reserved  for  printing  report 1,493 .99 

F  6  $12,500.00 


Report  of  (he  Survey  Staff 

CHAPTER  I 
PROBLEMS  AND  NEEDS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

NO  system  of  public  education  can  be  properly  interpreted  or 
rightly  understood  except  in  its  historical  perspective  and 
with  due  recognition  of  the  topographic,  social,  economic  and 
other  factors  which  have  given  it  its  character  and  which  must 
determine  the  lines  of  its  development.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  a  State  like  Virginia  with  its  eventful  history,  its  peculiar  topo- 
graphic conditions,  its  social  traditions,  and  its  social  and 
economic  problems. 

No  attempt  can  be  made  here  to  trace  in  detail  the  influence 
of  Virginia's  social,  economic,  political,  and  educational  history 
on  the  present  status  of  her  schools.  Prior  to  the  war  between 
the  States,  Virginia  had  a  history  rich  in  tradition  and  events 
which  profoundly  affected  education  in  the  State  and  whose 
influences  are  still  in  evidence.  Particularly  noteworthy  is  the 
influence  of  a  somewhat  aristocratic  and  individualistic  spirit 
which  until  recently  resulted  in  a  certain  tendency  to  be  sceptical 
of  the  value  of  public  education  and  to  oppose  the  extension  of 
State  supervision  or  control. 

Free  public  education  in  its  modern  conception  had  its  begin- 
ning in  Virginia  after  the  war  between  the  States,  the  present 
system  having  been  inaugurated  in  1871.  The  war  had  left 
Virginia,  even  more  than  the  other  States  of  the  South,  with 
impoverished  fortunes,  with  the  tremendous  social  and  economic 
problems  of  reconstruction,  and  with  a  system  of  education 
requiring  almost  complete  reorganization.  The  period  between 
1871  and  1900  was  a  period  in  which  the  development  of  a 
system  of  public  education  was  beset  with  almost  insurmount- 
able difficulties.  Judges  of  education  in  Virginia  and  in  the 
South  should  bear  in  mind  constantly  the  brief  period  within 
which  the  school  system  had  to  be  developed  and  the  tremen- 
dous difficulties  by  which  its  development  was  conditioned. 
Short  school  terms,  poor  attendance,  inadequate  financial  pro- 


54  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

vision,  and  other  unsatisfactory  conditions  were  the  natural 
and  perhaps  necessary  results  of  factors  over  which  the  people 
of  Virginia,  until  recently,  had  little  control.  Only  within  the 
past  two  decades  has  Virginia  been  financially  able  to  move 
rapidly  in  the  direction  of  a  satisfactory  system  of  public  educa- 
tion. 

i. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION 

In  1910  the  population  of  Virginia  was  2,061,612.  The  aver- 
age growth  per  decade  from  1880  to  1910  was  approximately 
eleven  per  cent.  There  appears  little  reason  to  expect  that  for 
the  State  as  a  whole  any  extraordinary  increase  of  population 
will  complicate  problems  of  education  in  the  near  future. 

More  significant  than  the  size  of  the  population  is  its  distri- 
bution in  various  parts  of  the  State.  In  Table  1  (A)  are 
presented  figures  showing  that  in  most  parts  of  the  State  the 
population  is  small  and  scattered,  and  in  Table  1  (B)  are  pre- 
sented figures  showing  that  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  counties 
of  the  State  are  one  hundred  per  cent  rural  in  the  sense  that 
all  the  population  lives  in  the  open  country  or  in  communities 
of  less  than  2,500  inhabitants.  According  to  the  Thirteenth 
Census  three-quarters  of  the  State  was  rural  in  1910.  Much 
less  accurate  but  more  recent  figures  indicate  that  about  three- 
fifths  of  the  estimated  population  live  either  in  the  open  country 
or  in  communities  of  less  than  one  hundred  persons.  (See 
Table  2.) 

This  sparse  and  scattered  population  in  most  parts  of  the 
State  has  several  important  results  for  education:  (1)  It  makes 
extremely  difficult  proper  provision  for  schools  in  many  districts; 
(2)  it  necessitates  the  maintenance  of  a  larger  number  of  small 
one-teacher  and  two-teacher  schools,  especially  in  districts 
where  mountain  ranges  (in  the  West)  or  rivers,  creeks  and 
swamps  (in  the  East)  isolate  communities;  (3)  it  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  provision  for  school  consolidation  and  the 
transportation  of  pupils;  (4)  it  renders  very  difficult  the  main- 
tenance of  schools  for  negroes  in  some  portions  of  the  State, 
e.  g.,  in  the  thirty-nine  counties  where  there  are  ten  colored 
persons  or  less  of  all  ages  to  the  square  mile;  (5)  it  emphasizes 
the  importance  in  most  parts  of  the  State  of  provision  for  a 
form  of  education  adapted  to  rural  life. 


Problems  and  Needs  of  Education  55 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  the  natural  tendency  to  congregate 
in  certain  districts  of  a  county  makes  these  problems  less  diffi- 
cult than  might  appear  from  the  figures  given  for  any  county 
as  a  whole.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  true  that  in  most  parts 
of  the  State  the  sparse  and  scattered  population  creates  serious 
problems  for  education,  all  the  more  because  of  the  necessity 
of  providing  separate  schools  for  white  children  and  for  colored 
children.  The  most  difficult  problems  of  education  in  any 
State  are  those  of  providing  anything  like  equality  of  educa- 
tional opportunity  for  children  in  rural  districts.  In  Virginia, 
as  in  other  Southern  States,  this  problem  is  greatly  increased 
by  the  necessity  of  providing  a  dual  system  of  education  for 
white  and  colored  children.  Critics  of  education  in  the  State 
should  bear  in  mind  this  fact. 

ii. THE  RACIAL  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  POPULATION 

In  1910  native  whites  of  native  parentage  constituted  64.3 
per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  Virginia,  and  95.4  per  cent 
of  the  white  population.  Native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed 
parentage  constituted  only  1.8  per  cent  of  the  total  population, 
and  foreign-born  whites  only  1.3  per  cent.  Of  the  rural  popu- 
lation native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage  constituted 
but  1.0  per  cent  of  the  population,  and  foreign-born  whites 
only  0.8  per  cent.  For  the  urban  population  those  proportions 
were  respectively  4.5  per  cent,  and  2.9  per  cent. 

Of  the  one  hundred  counties  in  the  State  (excluding  figures  for 
cities  enumerated  in  the  census)  forty-one  contained  each  less 
than  one  per  cent  of  combined  native  whites  of  foreign  or 
mixed  parentage  and  foreign-born  whites,  sixty-eight  contained 
each  less  than  two  per  cent  of  those  combined  groups,  and 
only  eight  (mostly  of  a  suburban  character  or  affected  by  nearby 
cities)  had  each  as  much  as  five  per  cent  of  the  population  com- 
posed of  native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage  and  for- 
eign-born whites  combined.  Seven  cities  (Alexandria,  Newport 
News,  Norfolk,  Richmond,  Portsmouth,  Roanoke,  Staunton) 
contained  each  a  population  of  which  five  or  more  per  cent 
was  composed  of  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage  and  for- 
eign-born whites  combined.  Some  of  the  purest  native  white 
stock  in  America  is  found  in  Bland,  Buchanan,  Carroll,  Dicken- 


56  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

son,  Grayson,  Scott  and  Shenandoah  Counties,  each  of  which 
has  more  than  95  per  cent  of  the  total  population  composed 
of  native  whites  of  native  parentage. 

It  is  clear  that  education  in  Virginia  is  little  affected  by  the 
foreign  element  in  its  population,  except  possibly  in  a  few  cities 
and  except  as  persistent  social  heredity  affects  educational 
standards  and  ideals  in  certain  sections  of  the  state. 

On  the  other  hand  the  distribution  of  population  according 
to  color  creates  problems  of  far-reaching  importance  for  society 
and  for  education  in  Virginia.  In  1910,  according  to  the  Fed- 
eral Census,  there  were  671,076  negroes  in  the  state  out  of  a 
total  population  of  2,061,612,  the  per  cent  of  negro  population 
being  32.6,  as  compared  with  a  per  cent  of  35.6  in  1900.  At 
the  time  of  the  last  federal  census  Virginia  was  the  eighth  state 
in  the  country  in  the  number  of  negroes,  and  the  seventh  state 
in  the  proportion  of  negroes  in  the  total  population.  The  only 
other  states  having  a  larger  proportion  of  negro  population  in 
1910  were  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Louisiana. 

If  the  negro  population  were  distributed  evenly  over  the 
state  the  educational  problems  created  would  be  somewhat 
less  difficult  than  they  are  under  existing  conditions,  where 
the  great  bulk  of  the  negro  population  is  concentrated  in  the 
region  east  and  southeast  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains.  The 
general  distribution  of  negroes  in  the  state  may  to  be  seen  from 
the  figures  presented  in  Table  1  (C). 

According  to  the  school  census  of  1915  there  were  no  colored 
children  of  school  age  in  Buchanan  County,  one  in  Dickenson 
County,  thirty-three  in  Craig  County.  In  those  counties 
there  are  no  schools  for  colored  children  and  none  could  be 
justified.  At  the  other  extreme  we  find  Pittsylvania  County 
with  6,147  colored  children  of  school  age  and  Norfolk  County 
(exclusive  of  cities)  with  9,444  colored  children.  Between 
those  extremes  are  found  all  degrees  and  proportions  of  colored 
population.  Obviously  problems  of  negro  education  are  radi- 
cally different  in  different  parts  of  the  State. 

fii. OCCUPATIONAL  FACTORS 

A  wide  variety  of  occupational  activities  characterizes  the 
economic  life  of  Virginia.  In  such  cities  as  Newport  News, 


Problems  and  Needs  of  Education  57 

Portsmouth,  and  Norfolk  the  shipping  trades  and  their  allied 
industries  dominate  the  field.  Suffolk  is  the  centre  of  the  pea- 
nut trade,  Roanoke  is  a  railroad  city.  Other  cities  have  their 
peculiar  industrial  or  trade  activities.  Districts  bordering  on 
the  river  mouths  and  on  Chesapeake  Bay  are  centers  of  the 
oyster  and  fish  trade.  Mining  is  the  dominant  industry  in  parts 
of  the  western  mountain  districts. 

In  Table  3  are  presented  figures  showing  the  distribution 
of  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  in  1910.  From  those 
figures  it  is  clear  that  at  that  date  Virginia  was  still  primarily 
an  agricultural  State,  forty-five  per  cent  of  all  engaged  in  gain- 
ful occupations  being  engaged  in  agriculture. 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  war  activities  have  materially 
modified  the  economic  situation  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State. 
How  permanent  the  changes  may  be  it  is  impossible  to  judge. 
In  all  probability  increased  industrial  and  trade  activities  will 
continue  to  dominate  in  a  few  centres.  There  can  be  little 
doubt,  however,  that  agriculture  will  continue  to  be  the  main 
form  of  economic  activity  in  most  parts  of  the  State. 

Virginia  is  rich  in  natural  resources,  and  is  fortunately  situ- 
ated for  purposes  of  commerce  and  trade.  The  development 
of  those  resources  and  the  materialization  of  the  opportunities 
for  commerce  and  trade  must  depend  in  no  small  degree  on  the 
education  which  is  provided  to  develop  economic  and  social 
efficiency  of  Virginia's  citizens.  Unless  Virginia  is  willing, 
through  the  education  of  her  citizens,  to  develop  a  capital  of 
intellectual,  economic  and  social  efficiency  she  cannot  hope  to 
compete  with  other  States  which  may  have  less  natural  resources 
but  have  learned  the  economic  value  of  a  well  supported  sys- 
tem of  education. 

iv. — ILLITERACY 

In  1910,  according  to  the  Thirteenth  Census,  15.2  per  cent 
of  the  total  population,  8.2  per  cent  of  the  native  white  popu- 
lation, and  30.0  per  cent  of  the  negro  population  were  illiterate 
in  the  sense  that  they  could  not  read  or  write.  At  that  time 
Virginia  occupied  the  fortieth  place  among  the  forty-eight 
States  with  respect  to  the  proportion  of  illiterates  in  the  total 
population,  forty-first  place  with  respect  to  the  proportion  of 


58  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

illiterates  in  the  native-white  of  native-parentage  population, 
and  forty-second  place  with  respect  to  the  proportion  of  illit- 
erates in  the  negro  population.    (See  Table  4.) 

At  the  same  time  the  per  cents  of  illiteracy  among  children 
ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age  were  5.7  for  white  children  of  native 
parentage,  16.0  for  negro  children,  and  9.2  for  all  classes,  Vir- 
ginia tying  with  Georgia  for  forty-second  place  with  respect 
to  illiteracy  among  white  children  of  native  parentage,  occu- 
pying the  fortieth  position  for  illiteracy  among  negro  children, 
and  occupying  the  the  thirty-ninth  position  for  illiteracy  among 
children  of  all  classes  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age.     (See  Table  4.) 

Illiteracy  is  greatest  in  the  rural  districts  where  in  1910  one 
in  every  ten  white  persons,  one  in  about  every  three  negroes,  and 
one  in  about  every  six  of  the  total  population  could  not  read  or 
write.  Conditions  in  various  districts  vary  greatly  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table  5,  eight  counties  hav- 
ing (in  1910)  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of  the  white  population 
illiterate,  ten  counties  having  (in  1910)  more  than  one-half  of 
the  negro  population  illiterate,  and  eighteen  counties  having 
(in  1910)  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  of  children  ten  to  twenty 
years  of  age  illiterate. 

Undoubtedly  conditions  of  literacy  have  greatly  improved 
since  1910.  In  Table  5  are  presented  figures  showing  the  per 
cents  of  illiteracy  in  the  counties  of  Virginia  according  to  the 
State  School  Census  of  1915  for  children  of  ages  seven  to  nine- 
teen inclusive.  Those  figures  are  of  very  doubtful  reliability, 
as  for  that  matter  are  all  figures  for  illiteracy. 

According  to  the  figures  of  the  State  School  Census  for  chil- 
dren of  school  age  3.3  per  cent  of  the  white  children,  8.5  per 
cent  of  the  colored  children,  and  4.7  per  cent  of  all  children  in 
the  non-city  districts  of  the  State  were  illiterate  in  1915.  In 
the  cities  the  corresponding  figures  were  0.5  per  cent  for  white 
children,  5.0  per  cent  for  colored  children,  and  2.0  per  cent 
for  all.  For  the  State  as  a  whole  (counties  and  cities  combined) 
the  corresponding  figures  were  2.8  per  cent  for  white  children, 
8.9  per  cent  for  colored  children,  and  4.2  per  cent  for  all.1 


1  Figures  for  totals  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  p.  102,  are  obviously  wrong  by  misplaced 
decimals. 


Problems  and  Needs  of  Education  59 

In  all  probability  the  figures  in  the  Federal  census  and  in  the 
State  School  census  have  a  wide  margin  of  error  because  of  the 
obvious  difficulties  of  obtaining  the  true  facts  concerning 
illiteracy.    The  chances  are  great  that  these  figures  are  too  low. 

Illiteracy  in  Virginia  is  undoubtedly  still  an  important  prob- 
lem. Even  greater,  however,  is  the  problem  of  near  illiteracy. 
Where  absolute  illiteracy  in  the  State  is  measured  by  its  hun- 
dreds, near  illiteracy  as  the  result  of  very  brief  school  attendance 
and  very  short  school  terms,  is  measured  by  its  thousands. 
Mere  ability  to  write  one's  name  or  to  pick  out  words  in  the 
simplest  newspaper  article  is  practically  of  no  greater  value,  as 
measured  by  the  present  needs,  than  absolute  illiteracy.  Near 
illiteracy  as  well  as  absolute  illiteracy  must  be  eliminated  in 
Virginia. 

V. — IMPERATIVE  NEEDS 

In  the  following  chapters  of  this  report  are  presented  findings 
and  recommendations  concerning  the  public  schools  of  Virginia. 
As  an  aid  to  their  interpretation  a  brief  statement  here  may  be 
made  of  the  principal  needs  at  present  imperative. 

(1).  The  School  Term  must  be  Lengthened:  In  1917-18  the 
length  of  the  school  term  was  on  the  average  only  140 
school  days  in  the  county  schools  and  only  147  school  days  for  all 
schools  in  the  State.  In  some  counties  the  average  term  was  as 
low  as  112  school  days  for  white  schools  and  98  school  days  for 
colored  schools.  A  minimum  term  of  180  school  days  must  be  set 
as  the  standard  for  each  school  in  the  State.    (Chapter  II.) 

(2).  An  Effective  Compulsory  Attendance  Law  must  be  Pro- 
vided: At  present  public  school  funds  are  in  part  all  but  wasted 
and  children  are  losing  their  opportunities  for  education  because 
of  low  enrolments  and  poor  attendance.  In  1917-18  more  than 
one-third  of  the  education  provided  was  lost  through  poor 
attendance.  The  number  of  days'  schooling  actually  received 
by  children  in  Virginia  was  less  than  100.  The  present  "com- 
pulsory attendance"  law  is  practically  useless.  A  real  compul- 
sory attendance  law  must  be  provided  at  once.     (Chapter  III.) 

{$).  Grading  and  School  Organization  must  be  Improved:  At 
present  in  the  non-city  districts  of  Virginia  the  grading  (i.e.,  the 


60  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

distribution  of  pupils  by  grades)  is  in  general  very  defective  and 
in  many  rural  schools  cannot  be  described  as  other  than  chaotic. 
Pupils  enter  school  at  any  age  from  five  to  ten,  apparently 
according  to  their  own  caprice  or  the  whim  of  their  parents. 
Once  in  school  their  progress  is  extremely  irregular  so  that  there 
is  little  correlation  between  their  grade  in  school  and  their  age 
or  length  of  enrolment.  The  present  situation  in  non-city  districts 
must  be  remedied  (a)  by  proper  attendance  laws,  (6)  by  provision 
for  better  teachers,  (c)  by  better  school  organization.    (Chapter  IV.) 

(4).  Better  Trained  Teachers  are  Needed:  At  present  in  Vir- 
ginia the  teaching  force  is  relatively  unstable,  teachers  in  general 
are  not  trained  for  their  tasks,  and  the  pay  of  teachers  is  lower 
than  that  of  unskilled  labor.  The  most  imperative  need  of  public 
education  in  Virginia  is  provision  for  well  trained  and  well  paid 
teachers.    (Chapters  VII  to  IX.) 

(5).  Improvements  are  Needed  in  the  Program  of  Education 
Provided:  At  present  important  forms  of  education  are  sadly 
neglected.  This  is  particularly  true  of  practical  arts  or  voca- 
tional education  and  of  physical  education.  The  elementary 
school  program,  in  rural  schools  particularly,  is  very  limited  in 
its  actual  scope  and  the  high  schools  provide  a  program  almost 
exclusively  academic.  Provision  must  be  made  for  an  expansion 
of  the  instructional  program.    (Chapters  V,  XI  and  XII.) 

(6).  Consolidation  must  be  Increased:  Approximately  80  per 
cent  of  all  the  schools  of  Virginia  are  at  present  one-teacher  or 
two-teacher  schools  and  more  than  one-half  of  all  pupils  are 
attending  such  schools.  Beyond  question  the  peculiar  topo- 
graphic conditions  of  the  State  and  the  distribution  of  popu- 
lation will  always  necessitate  a  large  number  of  one-teacher 
and  two-teacher  schools.  Nevertheless  the  present  number 
can  and  should  be  greatly  reduced  in  the  interests  of  the  chil- 
dren enrolled.  School  consolidation  must  be  greatly  increased  in 
Virginia.     (Chapters  XV  and  XVI.) 

(7).  The  School  Plant  must  be  Improved:  In  some  parts  of 
the  State  excellent  provision  is  made  for  school  buildings, 
school  grounds,  and  equipment.  In  general,  however,  there  is 
great  need  for  improvement  in  the  selection  of  sites,  in  the  con- 
struction of  buildings,   and  in  the  plrysical  equipment.     In 


Problems  and  Needs  of  Education  61 

many  districts  (unfortunately  not  few)  the  school  plant  can- 
not be  described  otherwise  than  as  disgraceful.  Measures  are 
needed  for  improvement  in  the  construction  and  care  of  the  school 
plant.     (Chapter  XVII.) 

(8).  Better  Supervision  must  be  Provided  for  Rural  Schools. 
(Chapter  XIV.) 

(9) .  State  and  local  systems  of  Administration  must  be  Changed : 
The  present  forms  of  State  and  local  organization  and  adminis- 
tration are  not  in  conformance  with  accepted  standards  or  the 
best  practice.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  proper 
development  of  public  education  in  Virginia  demands  a  thor- 
ough reorganization  of  the  system  of  administrative  organiza- 
tion. (Chapters  XVIII,  XIX,  and  XX.) 

(10).  The  financial  support  of  Pubilic  Schools  must  be  greatly 
Increased:  There  is  no  possibility  of  effective  education  in 
the  public  schools  of  Virginia  on  the  basis  of  present  financial 
support.  Not  less  than  a  seventy-five  per  cent  increase  can  suf- 
fice to  place  education  in  Virginia  on  a  footing  equal  to  the  national 
average.      (Chapter  XXI.) 

(11).  The  methods  of  raising  and  distributing  school  funds 
must  be  changed:  Present  methods  of  raising  and  distributing 
school  funds  in  Virginia  are  very  defective  and  in  some  cases 
defeat  the  very  ends  which  they  are  intended  to  accomplish. 
(Chapter  XXI). 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  SCHOOL  TERM  IN  VIRGINIA 

IT  is  obvious  that  a  fundamental  problem  involved  in  deter- 
mining  the  efficiency  of  any  system  of  public  schools  is  that 
which  concerns  the  amount  of  education  provided  for  and 
received  by  the  children  for  whom  the  schools  are  maintained. 
In  succeeding  chapters  is  considered  the  amount  of  education 
received  by  the  children  of  Virginia.  In  this  chapter  is  consid- 
ered the  amount  of  education  which  is  provided  for  them,  as 
far  as  that  may  be  measured  by  the  length  of  the  school  term. 
The  school  term  (i.e.,  the  length  of  time  that  schools  are  open 
during  the  school  year)  is  noticeably  shorter  in  Virginia  and 
throughout  the  South  than  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
According  to  the  latest  available  reports  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  (1915-16)  the  average  length  of  the  school 
term  in  Virginia  was  141  days,  as  compared  with  a  national 
average  of  160  days,  a  North  Atlantic  States  average  of  182 
days,  a  North  Central  States  average  of  167  days,  a  Western 
States  average  of  168  days,  a  Southern  States  average  of  135 
days,  and  a  "standard"  term  of  180  days.  At  that  time  Vir- 
ginia's rank  was  thirty  seventh  among  the  forty  eight  states, 
all  with  lower  records  being  southern  states. 

In  the  cities  of  Virginia  the  average  school  term  is  approxi- 
mately of  standard  length  (nine  months)  and  compares  favor- 
ably with  that  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  but  in  the  counties 
the  average  length  of  the  term  for  white  schools  is  about  seven 
and  one-third  months  (147  school  days)  and  for  colored  schools 
is  about  six  months  (120  school  days).  In  Table  6  are  presented 
figures  showing  the  number  of  counties  having  various  averages 
for  the  length  of  the  school  term  in  1917-18.  In  that  year  one- 
half  of  the  hundred  counties  of  the  State  kept  their  white  schools 
open  on  the  average  less  than  seven  and  one-third  months  and 
their  colored  schools  less  than  six  months.  For  one-room  and 
two-room  schools  the  corresponding  figures  were  six  and  one- 
half  months  for  white  schools  and  five  and  nine-tenths  months 
for  colored  schools.     In  more  than  one-third  of  the  counties 


The  School  Term 


63 


the  county-wide  averages  for  the  school  term  were  seven  months 
or  less  for  white  schools.  For  one-room  and  two-room  white 
schools  the  county-wide  averages  were  six  months  or  less  in 
one-third  of  the  State.  For  colored  schools  of  the  same  classes 
the  county-wide  averages  were  six  months  or  less  in  three-fifths 
of  the  State. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  figures  given  in  Table  6  represent 
county  averages,  not  the  records  for  individual  schools.  Natu- 
rally some  schools  have  better  records  and  naturally  some 
schools  have  even  worse  records.  In  Table  7  are  presented 
figures  for  748  non-city  white  schools  and  230  non-city  colored 
schools.  Of  those  white  schools  sixty-five  (nearly  nine  per  cent) 
had  school  terms  of  five  months  or  less.  Of  the  colored  schools 
nearly  one-third  had  school  terms  of  five  months  or  less,  and 
about  two-thirds  had  school  terms  of  only  six  months  or  less 
in  1917-18.    Obviously  "average"  records  are  very  misleading. 

Figure  1 

Shotting  the  population  of  non-city  schools  having  in  1917-18 
school  terms  of  various  lengths 
See  Table  7 
White  non-city  schools 


Colored  non-city  schools 


Sehools  with  terms  of  five  months  or  less. 
Schools  with  terms  of  5.1  to  6.0  months. 
Schools  with  terms  of  6.1  to  7.0  months. 
Schools  with  terms  of  7.1  to  8.0  months. 
Schools  with  terms  of  more  than  eight  months. 


The  significance  of  the  short  school  term  may  be  made  clearer 
if  we  estimate  the  time  it  would  take  a  pupil  in  a  short-term 
school  to  secure  the  time  equivalent  of  a  full  school  course  with 


64  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

a  standard  school  term.  A  pupil  who  attended  faithfully  and 
availed  himself  of  the  entire  course  offered  in  a  school  whose 
term  is  six  months  would  require  more  than  sixteen  years  to 
secure  the  time  equivalent  of  eleven  grades  of  education  in  a 
school  having  a  nine-month  term — and  if  he  entered  school  at 
the  age  of  seven  he  would  be  twenty-three  years  old  when  that 
school  education  was  completed.  Yet  an  eleven-grade  course 
with  a  nine-month  term  is  only  the  accepted  standard  for  the 
better  schools  of  Virginia.  If  the  same  pupil  expected  to  meet 
the  time  equivalent  of  the  twelve-grade  course  with  a  nine- 
month  term  found  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  he  would  require 
eighteen  years  and  would  be  twenty-five  years  of  age  at  its 
completion. 

Let  not  the  absurd  assumption  of  such  a  procedure  obscure 
the  seriousness  of  the  situation  in  Virginia.  It  is  true  that  no 
pupil  would  ever  follow  the  procedure  indicated.  It  is  also  true, 
however,  that  in  many  schools  of  Virginia  the  pupils  can  never 
receive  the  equivalent  education  and  it  is  equally  absurd  to 
suppose  that  pupils  can  ever  receive  an  adequate  education  in 
short-term  schools. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  further  that  Virginia  not 
only  has  a  short  school  term,  but  also,  following  the  Southern 
practice,  provides  an  eleven-grade  school  course,  in  contrast 
with  the  twelve-grade  course  which  is  the  standard  in  all  other 
parts  of  the  country.  The  general  problem  of  school  organi- 
zation is  considered  later  in  this  report.  It  may  be  observed 
here,  however,  that  the  combination  of  a  short  school  term  and 
a  short  school  course  increases  the  time  discrepancy  between 
the  education  offered  in  Virginia  and  that  offered  in  the  North 
or  West.  For  example,  in  Virginia  the  average  school  term  of 
seven  and  one-half  months  and  the  eleven-grade  course  gives 
an  average  total  educational  offering  of  sixty-eight  school 
months  (1,360  school  days).  This  may  be  contrasted  with  a 
Northern  Atlantic  States  average  school  term  of  nine  months 
and  a  twelve  grade  school  course,  with  a  total  educational  offer- 
ing of  108  school  months  (2,160  school  days),  or  with  a  total 
educational  offering  of  ninety-nine  school  months  (1,980  school 
days)  provided  in  most  cities  of  Virginia  with  a  nine  months 
term  and  an  eleven-grade  course. 

The  evils  of  the  short  school  term  and  the  gross  inequalities 
of  educational  opportunity  caused  thereby  have  not  gone  with- 


The  School  Term  65 

out  recognition  by  the  educational  leaders  of  Virginia.  During 
the  past  fifteen  years  determined  and  partially  successful  efforts 
have  been  made  to  lengthen  the  term,  with  the  result  that  the 
State- wide  average  has  been  raised  from  six  months  in  1900  to 
nearly  seven  and  one-half  months  in  1918. 

At  the  last  (1918)  session  of  the  General  Assembly  a  special 
appropiation  of  $680,000  was  made  with  the  stipulation,  among 
others,  that  it  should  not  be  apportioned  to  any  county  or  city 
unless  the  schools  were  conducted  for  a  term  of  not  less  than 
seven  months,  or  for  a  period  at  least  twenty  days  (one  school 
month)  longer  than  the  term  for  the  previous  session,  or  for  a 
period  satisfactory  to  the  State  Board  of  Education.  That 
law  would  undoubtedly  have  improved  conditions  materially, 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  epidemic  of  influenza. 

Many  improvements  in  educational  conditions  can  be  brought 
about  only  gradually  as  the  quality  of  teaching  is  improved, 
complex  forms  of  administration  organized,  or  new  methods 
developed.  Lengthening  the  school  term  does  not  belong  to 
that  class  of  improvements.  The  sole  element  involved  is  the 
increased  pay  for  teaching  for  a  longer  period.  It  is  just  as  easy 
to  take  that  step  at  once  as  by  gradual  stages.  It  is  inevitable 
sooner  or  later  and  delay  can  only  mean  the  continued  loss  of 
educational  opportunity  for  the  children  of  Virginia. 

One  point  only  needs  further  emphasis.  Increasing  the  aver- 
age length  of  the  school  term  for  the  State  or  for  any  county  or 
district  does  not  in  the  least  benefit  the  children  whose  misfor- 
tune it  is  to  attend  a  school  whose  term  remains  short.  The 
practice  of  lengthening  the  terms  of  town  schools  at  the  expense 
of  outlying  schools  of  the  same  district  is  thoroughly  vicious. 
Such  practice  is  not  uncommon  in  Virginia.  Equally  vicious 
is  the  practice,  obtaining  in  some  schools,  of  having  a  nine- 
months  term  for  the  high-school  grades  while  elementary  grades 
of  the  same  schools  are  provided  a  term  shorter  by  a  month  or 
more.  Nothing  short  of  a  universal  nine-month  term  for  all 
schools  and  all  grades  should  be  permitted. 

RECOMMENDATION 

That  a  nine-months  term  be  adopted  as  the  minimum  stand- 
ard for  all  public  schools  and  that  provision  be  made  for  the 
attainment  of  that  minimum  standard  through  the  methods 
adopted  for  the  apportionment  of  State  funds.    (Chapter  XXI). 


CHAPTER  III 

SCHOOL  POPULATION,  ENROLMENT  AND 
ATTENDANCE 

¥T  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  the  amount  of 
education  provided  for  children  in  Virginia  is,  for  the  State 
as  a  whole,  seriously  limited.  The  next  problem  is:  How  many 
and  what  proportion  of  children  of  school  age  receive  the  benefits 
of  the  education  which  is  provided?  Here  we  may  consider  four 
topics:  (i)  the  school  population;  (ii)  the  school  enrolment; 
(iii)  school  attendance;  (iv)  compulsory  attendance. 

i. — SCHOOL  POPULATION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  CENSUS 

In  its  most  general  sense  school  population  means  the  number 
of  children  of  those  ages  at  which  children  should  be  in  school, 
with  or  without  legal  provision.  Legally  and  technically  it 
means  the  number  of  children  whose  ages  fall  within  the  limits 
which  the  law  sets  to  determine  the  classes  of  persons  to  whom 
the  public  schools  are  legally  open. 

All  but  four  states  in  the  country  set  some  legal  limits  to  the 
ages  of  children  to  whom  the  schools  are  open.  The  lower  age 
limit  is  set  at  four  in  three  states,  at  five  in  thirteen  states,  at 
six  in  twenty-five  states,  and  at  seven  in  three  states  (including 
Virginia).  The  upper  age  limit  is  set  at  16  in  five  states,  at  17  in 
one  state,  at  18  in  seven  states,  at  20  in  seven  states,  and  at  21 
in  twenty-four  states.  The  standard  employed  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  is  5  to  18  years  inclusive. 

Virginia  is  the  only  state  in  the  country  basing  the  school 
census  and  estimating  the  school  population  on  the  number  of 
children  of  ages  seven  to  twenty  (seven  to  nineteen  inclusive). 
For  practical  school  purposes  in  Virginia  or  elsewhere  such 
figures  are  of  little  value  except  in  the  most  general  way.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  in  the  schools  of  Virginia  at  present  there  are 
more  children  five  years  of  age  than  of  ages  eighteen  and  nine- 
teen taken  together,  and  there  are  more  than  twice  as  many 
pupils  six  years  of  age  than  of  all  ages  above  sixteen  combined. 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance       67 

By  an  act  of  1914  the  public  schools  of  the  State  are  "free  to 
any  child  six  years  of  age,  provided  that  in  the  opinion  of  the 
teacher  and  the  division  superintendent  the  said  child  shall 
have  reached  such  a  stage  of  maturity  as  to  render  it  advisable 
to  permit  him  to  enter  school."  In  eighteen  counties,  intensively 
investigated,  the  number  of  six-year-old  white  pupils  was 
seventy  per  cent  as  large  as  the  number  of  pupils  seven  years 
of  age,  and  the  number  of  pupils  under  seven  years  of  age 
(five  and  six  combined)  was  nearly  eighty-five  per  cent  as 
large  as  the  number  of  seven-year-old  pupils.  In  the  cities  of  the 
State  the  corresponding  figures  were  seventy-eight  per  cent 
and  one  hundred  twelve  per  cent.  Since  the  number  of  seven- 
year-old  pupils  in  school  includes  many  who  entered  at  the  age 
of  five  or  six,  the  figures  at  our  disposal  warrant  the  assumption 
that  approximately  as  many  children  enter  school  at  the  age  of 
six,  or  even  younger,  as  enter  at  the  age  of  seven.  In  the  cities 
of  Virginia  there  are  actually  nearly  one-third  more  white 
children  six  years  of  age  than  seven  years  of  age  in  the  first 
grade  and  one-third  as  many  children  five  years  of  age.  Six- 
year-old  children  should  certainly  be  included  in  the  State 
school  census,  and  probably  five-year-old  children  should  also 
be  included,  if  for  no  other  reason,  because  an  enumeration 
of  children  five  years  old  would  permit  intelligent  estimates  of 
children  who  should  enter  school  within  a  year. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  inclusion  of  nineteen-year-old  persons 
in  the  school  census  is  practically  useless  and  has  little  reference 
to  the  actual  school  situation,  except  for  a  totally  indefensible 
practice  of  apportioning  funds  on  the  basis  of  school  popula- 
tion.1 Of  nearly  fifty  thousand  white  children  enrolled  in  the 
schools  of  eighteen  counties  only  235  (less  than  one-half  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  total  enrolment)  were  nineteen  years  of  age. 
Of  nearly  sixty-five  thousand  white  children  enrolled  in  city 
schools  only  142  (about  one-fifth  of  one  per  cent  of  the  total 
enrolment)    were  nineteen   years   of  age.      For   all   practical 

1  At  present  the  State  Constitution  provides  that  State  school  funds 
shall  be  "apportioned  on  the  basis  of  population;  the  number  of  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  seven  and  twenty  years  in  each  school  district 
to  be  the  basis  of  such  apportionment."  Unquestionably  that  section 
(135)  of  the  Constitution  should  be  amended  at  the  earliest  oppor- 
tunity. 


68  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

purposes  it  would  be  far  better  to  interpret  "school  age"  and 
estimate  the  school  population  on  the  basis  of  ages  five  to 
eighteen  inclusive,  in  accordance  with  the  standard  of  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Education,  and  more  nearly  in  accordance 
with  the  actual  school  situation 

Section  653  of  the  Revised  Code  provides  for  a  census  every 
five  years  of  all  persons  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  twenty 
years  residing  within  each  school  disrict,  that  census  to  be  taken 
by  the  district  clerk,  who  receives  compensation  at  the  rate  of  three 
dollars  per  hundred  of  the  children  listed  by  him.  The  relation 
of  that  census  to  the  apportionment  of  funds  is  considered  in  a 
later  chapter  of  this  report.1  Here  it  is  pertinent  only  to  note 
certain  other  matters  relating  to  the  school  census:  (a)  As 
suggested  above,  the  enumeration  of  children  of  ages  seven  to 
nineteen  inclusive  has  little  relation  to  the  facts  or  problems  of 
school  enrolment  and  attendance.  The  census  provisions 
should  be  changed  so  as  to  enumerate  children  of  ages  five  to 
eighteen  inclusive,  the  latter  age  being  set  because  children 
normally  complete  the  high-school  work  at  that  age.  (b)  To  be 
of  real  value  the  school  census  should  be  made  cumulative  and 
continuous  through  annual  or,  at  least,  biennial  correction. 
Important  changes  may  take  place  in  the  school  population  of 
some  communities  within  a  five-year  period  set  at  present; 
e.  g.,  during  the  past  two  or  three  years  in  Norfolk,  Portsmouth 
Newport  News,  Hopewell,  and  Petersburg,  (c)  The  school 
census  should  be  made  to  include  much  more  than  an  enumera- 
tion of  children  of  different  ages  and  the  number  of  illiterates; 
e.  g.,  it  should  include  statistics  concerning  the  amount  of 
schooling  received,  distance  from  the  nearest  school,  etc.  (d)  To 
be  of  greatest  value,  the  school  census  should  be  so  conducted 
as  to  enable  school  officers  to  carry  over  directly  into  the  school 
field  the  valuable  information  gained.  In  the  absence  of  a 
State  census  bureau,  the  school  census  should  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  division  superintendent,  (e)  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  present  system  in  some  districts  is  conducted 
in  a  more  or  less  perfunctory  and  infficient  fashion,  invites  the 
conscious  or  unconscious  padding  of  returns,  and  produces  statis- 
tics which  are  of  somewhat  doubtful  reliability. 

i    (C/.  Chapter  XXI.) 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance       69 

ii. — SCHOOL  ENROLMENT  IN  VIRGINIA 

In  view  of  the  discrepancy  between  the  age  groups  enu- 
merated in  the  state  school  census  and  the  actual  ages  of 
enrolment,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  determine  accu- 
rately what  proportions  of  children  of  "school  age"  are  enrolled 
in  the  schools  of  Virginia.  This  difficulty  is  increased  by  the 
fact  that  the  basis  of  the  school  census  was  changed  by  the 
adoption  of  the  new  State  Constitution  in  1902  from  persons  of 
ages  five  to  twenty  inclusive  to  persons  of  ages  seven  to  nineteen 
inclusive,  so  that  any  attempt  to  trace  the  development  of 
enrolments  in  relation  to  school  population  is  still  more  compli- 
cated. 

In  1910  (according  to  the  Federal  Census)  Virginia  occupied 
a  position  in  the  lowest  sixth  of  the  states  with  respect  to  the 
proportion  of  children  in  school,  her  rank  for  the  per  cent  of 
children  six  to  twenty  years  of  age  in  school  being  forty-third, 
for  children  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age  in  school  being  fortieth, 
and  for  children  six  to  nine  years  of  age  in  school  being  forty- 
fifth.  For  the  per  cent  of  children  fifteen  to  twenty  years  of 
age  in  school  her  rank  among  the  states  was  twenty-fourth. 
Figures  from  the  Federal  Census  concerning  enrolment  in 
Virginia  in  1910  are  presented  in  Table  9. 

Improvement  after  1910  has  been  noticeable,  but  the  situation 
is  still  far  from  satisfactory,  according  to  the  latest  comparative 
statistics  published  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education,  as 
shown  in  Table  10.  From  those  figures  it  appears  that  in  1915- 
16  Virginia  occupied  the  thirty-fourth  place  among  forty-eight 
states  with  respect  to  the  per  cent  of  children  five  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  enrolled  in  school,  having  a  lower  rate  of  enrolment 
than  any  Southern  state  except  Alabama  and  Lousisiana  in 
1915-16.  Finally  a  late  bulletin  issued  by  the  Bureau  of 
Education  indicates  that  among  forty-four  states  considered 
Virginia  occupied  the  thirty-eighth  place  with  respect  to  the  per 
cent  of  children  five  to  eighteen  years  of  age  in  schools.1 

In  Tables  11 — 12  are  presented  figures  indicating  the  relation 
of  school  enrolments  to  the  total  population  (more  reliable 
figures)  and  to  the  school  population  (less  reliable  figures  for 

»    Bulletin  1919,  No.  4,  p.  25. 


70  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

children  of  ages  seven  to  nineteen  inclusive)  at  different  periods 
from  1890  to  1918.  From  those  figures  (  based  on  statistics 
of  the  State  Department  of  Education)  it  appears  that  for  white 
children  the  ratio  of  school  enrolment  to  the  school  population 
and  to  the  total  population  declined  from  1890  to  1910,  rising 
by  1915  or  1918  to  a  point  noticeably  above  the  record  for  1890. 
The  ratio  of  white  enrolment  to  the  total  white  population  in 
1890  was  21.6  per  cent,  in  1910  was  20.3  per  cent,  in  1915  was 
23.1  per  cent,  and  in  1918  was  22.6  per  cent — a  noticeable 
improvement  from  1910  to  1915.  Corresponding  ratios  of 
white  enrolment  to  white  school  population  were  75.3  per  cent 
in  1890,  70.9  per  cent  in  1910,  78.8  per  cent  in  1915,  and  75.3 
per  cent  in  1918.  For  colored  children  the  ratio  of  school 
enrolment  to  the  total  population  declined  from  19.3  per  cent 
in  1890  to  17.8  per  cent  in  1910,  and  by  1915  or  1918  had  barely 
recovered  its  1890  status.  Similarly  the  ratio  of  colored  school 
enrolment  to  colored  school  population  declined  from  59.2  per 
cent  in  1890  to  54.5  per  cent  in  1910,  and  by  1915  or  1918  had 
scarcely  recovered  its  1890  status. 

The  improvement  since  1910  is  noteworthy  and  commend- 
able. Virginia  in  the  past  decade  has  been  moving  in  the  right 
direction.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be  recognized  that  children 
are  not  brought  into  the  schools  and  retained  there  in  satis- 
factory fashion.  That  cities  of  the  State  show  a  fairly  satis- 
factory record  under  conditions  none  too  favorable — the 
absence  of  really  compulsory  education.  For  the  State  as  a 
whole,  however,  enrolment  in  the  public  schools  will  never  be 
satisfactory  until  some  effective  form  of  compulsory  attendance 
shall  bring  children  into  school  at  the  proper  age  and  retain  them 
there  for  a  period  of  time  more  nearly  meeting  the  demands  of  an 
adequate  education. 

iii. — SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  IN  VIRGINIA 

The  potential  amount  of  education  available  for  children  is 
determined  in  large  part  by  the  length  of  the  school  course  and 
by  the  length  of  the  school  term.  The  actual  amount  of  educa- 
tion received  by  children  is  conditioned  by  the  proportion  of 
children  enrolled  and  also  by  the  regularity  or  irregularity  of 
their  attendance.    On  the  one  hand,  the  shortness  of  a  school 


AH  Dressed  Up  and  Nowhere  to  Go  "—Nearest  school  8  mile?.    Appomattox  County. 


Richmond-Washington  Highway.    Stafford  County. 


Agricultural  High  School— School  Wagon.    Appomattox   County. 
SOME  FACTORS  IN  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE. 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance        71 

course  and  of  school  terms  may  be  offset  to  some  extent  if 
attendance  is  regular.  On  the  other  hand,  a  school  course  of 
adequate  length  and  long  school  terms,  even  with  high  rate  of 
enrolment,  may  be  offset  by  irregularity  of  attendance.  We 
may  consider  here  the  character  of  attendance  in  Virginia. 

In  Table  12  are  presented  figures  showing  the  average  daily 
attendance  for  various  periods  from  1890  to  1918  and  the 
relation  which  the  average  daily  attendance  bears  to  the  school 
enrolment  at  different  dates.  From  those  figures  it  appears 
that  the  ratio  of  daily  attendance  to  school  enrolment  for 
whites  has  increased  from  59.0  per  cent  in  1890  to  62.4  per 
cent  in  1910  and  to  about  67  or  68  per  cent  at  present.  Like- 
wise it  appears  that  for  negroes  that  ratio  has  increased  from 
56.0  per  cent  in  1890  to  61.1  per  cent  in  1910  and  to  about 
63.0  per  cent  at  present. 

Notably  significant  is  the  fact  that  at  the  present  time  for  every 
day  in  the  school  year  approximately  one-third  of  the  children 
enrolled  in  the  schools  of  Virginia  are  absent.    It  follows  that, 
on  the  average,  children  actually  enrolled  lose  approximately 
one-third  of  the  education  provided.    Virginia's  record  in  this 
respect  is  somewhat  above  the  record  for  the  South  Atlantic 
States  but  far  below  the  record  for  the  United  States  as  a  whole. 
Thus  it  appears  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table  10  (and  the 
source  from  which  they  were  taken)  that  in  1915-16  the  number 
of  pupils  attending  daily  for  each  one  hundred  children  enrolled 
in  Virginia  was  69.8,  as  compared  with  69.4  in  the  South 
Atlantic  States,  66.6  in  the  South  Centeral  States,  80.7  in  the 
North  Atlantic  States,  80.4  in  the  North  Centeral  States,  76.2 
in  the  Western  States,  and  75.5  in  the  United  States,  Virginia 
occupying  the  thirty-fourth  position  among  the  states  of  the 
country  in  this  respect.    It  also  appears  that  the  average  number 
of  days  attendance  for  each  child  of  ages  five  to  eighteen  was 
in  Virginia  71.9,  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  71.6,  in  the  South 
Centeral  States  67.4,  in  the  North  Atlantic  States  105.5,  in  the 
North  Central  States  104.1,  in  the  Western  States  107.7.  and  in  the 
United   States   91.7,   Virginia's   rank   among  the   forty-eight 
states  being  fortieth.     Fianlly,  it  appears  that  the  average 
number  of  days  attended  by  each  pupil  enrolled  was  98.4  in 
Virginia,  93.8  in  the  South  Atlantic  States,  in  the  South  Central 


72  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

States  90.0,  in  the  North  Atlantic  States  146.6,  in  the  North 
Central  States  134.4,  in  the  Western  States  127.8,  and  120.9  in 
the  United  States,  Virginia's  rank  among  the  forty-eight  states 
in  this  respect  being  thirty-fifth. 

Naturally  in  some  parts  of  the  States  attendance  is  much 
better,  in  others  much  worse,  than  the  average  for  the  state  as  a 
whole  would  indicate.  In  the  cities  the  attendance  is  much  bet- 
ter than  in  the  rural  districts.  In  Table  13  are  presented  figures 
showing  the  situation  in  the  non-city  schools  of  Virginia. 
There  very  great  variability  is  noticeable.  In  eight  counties 
of  the  State  the  county-wide  averages  for  the  attendance  of 
white  pupils  enrolled  are  between  fifty-one  and  fifty-five  per 
cent,  which  means  that  in  those  counties  on  the  average  nearly 
one-half  of  the  available  schooling  is  lost  through  poor  attend- 
ance by  white  children  actually  enrolled.  Likewise  in  sixteen 
counties  colored  pupils  through  poor  attendance  lose  more  than 
one-half  of  the  meagre  schooling  available,  and  in  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  counties  of  the  State  colored  children  through  poor 
attendance  lose  approximately  one-half  or  more  of  the  schooling 
provided. 
For  individual  schools  in  some  cases  conditions  are  still  worse. 
In  Table  14  are  presented  figures  showing  the  per  cents  of 
attendance  in  1917-18  for  624  white  rural  schools  and  218 
negro  rural  schools  particularly  investigated.  Those  figures 
show  that  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  white  schools  and  more 
than  one-quarter  of  the  colored  schools  in  rural  communities 
have  a  record  for  attendance  of  fifty  per  cent  or  less  of  the 
enrolment.  The  fact  that  many  other  schools  have  relatively 
high  rate  of  attendance  does  not  in  the  least  benefit  children  in 
the  poorer  schools,  however  much  it  may  help  to  give  a  bet- 
ter average  record. 

Summarizing  our  consideration  of  attendance  we  may  say 
that  it  is  unsatisfactory  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  that  the 
county-wide  average  in  some  counties  makes  effective  educa- 
tion absolutely  impossible,  and  that  in  some  communities  the 
schools  might  just  about  as  well  be  closed  as  attempt  to  provide 
education  under  the  conditions  of  attendance.  Visits  to  over  a 
thousand  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  State  have  made  it 
clear  to  the  Survey  Staff  that  the  figures  given  do  not  belie  the 
facts  of  the  case. 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance        73 

Figure  2 

Showing  proportions  of  non-city  schools  with  various  percentages 
of  attendance  in  1917-18 

See  Table  U 
White  non-city  schools 


Colored  non-city  schools 


Schools  having  an  attendance  rate  of  less  than  40  per  cent. 
Schools  having  an  attendance  rate  of  41  to  50  per  cent. 
Schools  having  an  attendence  rate  of  51  to  60  per  cent. 


Schools  having  an  attendance  rate  of  61  to  70  per  cent. 
|  I       Schools  having  an  attendance  rate  of  71  to  80  per  cent. 

||v^==i       Schools  having  an  attendance  rate  of  over  80  per  cent. 

In  this  connection  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  damage  done  to 
education  by  irregular  attendance  is  not  to  be  measured  merely 
by  the  time  lost  through  absence.  Irregular  attendance  not  only 
causes  the  loss  of  the  time  of  absence  but  disorganizes  the  work 
of  the  entire  school  to  an  extent  seldom  if  ever  realized  by  one 
not  well  acquainted  with  school  work.  An  immediate  effect  is 
that  well-organized  instruction  is  impossible  when  any  large 
proportion  of  a  class  is  irregular  in  attendance.  An  ultimate 
result  is  for  the  individual  an  education  shortened  by  poor 
attendance  and  for  the  school  a  congestion  of  pupils  in  any  one 
class,  heterogeneous  in  maturity  to  an  extent  which  renders 
instruction  extremely  difficult  if  not  impossible.  It  is  readily 
recognized  that  irregular  attendance  is  the  most  frequent  and 
potent  cause  of  retardation. 


74  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  only  successful  remedy  for  poor  and  irregular  attendance 
in  other  states  has  proven  to  be  an  effective  compulsory  attend- 
ance law.    This  must  be  provided  in  Virginia. 

iv. — COMPULSORY  ATTENDANCE 

Every  State  in  the  country  has  found  it  necessary  to  make 
some  kind  of  provision  for  the  compulsory  attendance,  though 
the  age  limits  vary. 

The  lower  age  limit  is  set  at  seven  in  twenty  States,  at  eight 
in  twenty-seven  States,  and  at  nine  in  one  State. 

The  upper  limit  is  set  at  twelve  in  three  States,  at  fourteen  in 
nineteen  States,  at  fifteen  in  fourteen  States,  at  sixteen  in  eleven 
States,  and  at  eighteen  in  one  State. 

The  number  of  years  covered  is  four  in  two  States,  five  in 
one  State,  six  in  ten  States,  seven  in  fifteen  States,  eight  in 
fifteen  States,  nine  in  four  States,  and  ten  in  one  State. 

The  amount  of  attendance  required  by  law  in  a  school  term 
is  a  "full  school  year"  in  thirty  States,  six  months  or  more  in 
four  States,  four  months  or  more  in  ten  States,  less  than  four 
months  in  four  States. 

What  is  the  situation  in  Virginia? 

The  State  Constitution  (Section  138)  provides  that  "The 
General  Assembly  may,  in  its  discretion,  provide  for  the  com- 
pulsory education  of  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and 
twelve  years,  except  such  as  are  weak  in  body  or  mind,  or  can 
read  and  write,  or  are  attending  private  schools,  or  are  excused 
for  cause  by  the  district  school  trustees." 

In  1908  the  General  Assembly  passed  a  law  providing  for 
the  compulsory  attendance  of  pupils  between  the  ages  of  eight 
and  twelve  years  except  under  certain  conditions  "provided, 
however,  that  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  not  apply  in  any 
county,  city,  or  town  of  this  Commonwealth  except  and  until 
the  qualified  voters  of  such  county  or  city  or  town  shall,  as 
hereinafter  provided,  avail  themselves  of  the  provisions  hereof." 
In  other  words  the  law  provided  for  local  option  in  the  matter 
of  compulsory  attendance  for  children  of  ages  eight  to  twelve. 

This  act  proving  ineffective,  the  General  Assembly  passed  a 
law  in  1918  containing  the  following  provisions: 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance       75 

Every  parent  or  guardian  or  other  person  having  control  of  any 
child  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  twelve  is  required  to  send  such 
child  to  a  public  school  for  at  least  sixteen  weeks  in  each  school  year, 
which  attendance  shall  commence  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  term 
and  shall  be  as  nearlv  continuous  as  possible.  A  child  weak  in  body  or 
mind,  or  able  to  read  and  write,  or  in  attendance  upon  a  private  school, 
or  living  more  than  two  miles  from  a  public  school,  or  more  than 
one  mile  from  a  wagon  route,  or  who  is  excused  for  cause  by  the 
district  board,  is  exempted  from  the  provisions  of  the  Act.  District 
school  boards  shall,  within  fifteen  days  after  the  schools  open, 
ascertain  the  condition  of  children  between  eight  and  twelve  who  are 
not  attending  school,  and  shall  report  all  violations  of  this  Act  to  the 
division  superintendent  who  shall  at  once  prosecute  each  and  every 
offense.  The  superintendent  shall  make  careful  investigations  of  the 
facts  in  the  case  of  non-attendance,  and  when  no  valid  reason  is  found, 
shall  give  written  notice  to  parent  or  guardian  at  the  usual  place  of 
residence,  which  notice  shall  require  the  attendance  of  the  child  at 
the  school  named  in  the  notice  within  seven  days. 

For  non-compliance  the  superintendent  shall  make  complaint  before 
a  justice  of  the  peace  or  police  justice  of  the  district  or  city  in  which 
said  parent  or  guardian  resides,  or  in  the  corporation  or  circuit  court 
of  the  city  or  county.  Non-compliance  with  the  provisions  of  this  Act 
is  a  misdemeanor  and  the  parent  or  guardian  is  liable  to  a  fine  not 
exceeding  $20  for  each  offense.  It  is  provided  that  the  clerk  in  each 
district  shall  report  to  the  superintendent  every  offense  against  the 
Act  when  a  member  of  the  district  school  board  or  any  citizen  of  the 
district  files  with  him  an  affidavit  setting  forth  the  offense,  and  if  the 
said  clerk  neglect  so  to  report  within  fifteen  days  after  such  affidavit  is 
filed,  he  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than 
ten  dollars  for  each  case  of  neglect. 

Two  weeks'  attendance  at  half  time  or  evening  schools  shall  be  con- 
sidered the  equivalent  of  one  week's  attendance  at  day  schools. 

The  school  board  of  any  city  shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  a  truant 
or  attendance  officer  to  perform  the  duties  required  under  the  Act  of 
the  clerk  of  the  district  board  and  the  division  superintendent. 

This  law  is  very  defective  and,  even  if  well  enforced,  could 
never  materially  improve  present  conditions.  Its  principal 
defects  are  considered  below. 

(1).  Virginia  shares  with  North  Carolina  the  honor  (?)  of 
having  its  compulsory  attendance  law  cover  the  lowest  range  of 
ages  (four  years)  among  the  States  of  the  country.  The  mini- 
mum range  should  cover  a  period  sufficiently  long,  at  least,  to 
equal  in  years  the  number  of  grades  provided  in  the  elementary 
school.  Virginia  cannot  afford  to  provide  her  children  with  less 
than  a  complete  elementary-school  education. 

(2) .  The  lower  age  limit  of  eight  years  is  found  in  more  than 
half  of  the  States  of  the  country  as  well  as  in  Virginia.  There 
are  many  reasons,  however,  why  the  age  of  eight  should  be 


76  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

considered  too  high  for  the  lower  limit  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance. Pupils  should  begin  their  schooling  at  the  age  of  six  in 
most  cases  and  that  is  the  common  entrance  age  in  most  of  the 
better  school  systems.  By  the  age  of  seven  certainly  all 
children  of  normal  health  and  mentality  should  be  compelled  to 
attend  school.  The  compulsory  attendance  period  should  begin 
not  later  than  the  age  of  seven  in  Virginia. 

(3).  Only  three  States  in  the  country  (Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Kentucky)  set  the  upper  limit  of  compulsory 
attendance  below  the  age  of  fourteen.  That  age  should  be  the 
minimum  upper  limit  because:  (a)  a  child  entering  school  at 
the  age  of  six  or  seven  and  progressing  normally  will  complete 
the  elementary-school  course  at  that  age;  (b)  children  should 
not  leave  school  until  they  are  prepared  to  enter  on  the  earning 
of  their  livelihood  and  the  employment  of  children  under  the 
age  of  fourteen  is  a  form  of  industrial  exploitation  not  to  be 
permitted ;  (c)  the  State  child  labor  law  forbids  the  employment 
of  children  under  the  age  of  fourteen  in  industrial  or  other 
gainful  occupations,  and  forbids  their  employment  under  the 
age  of  sixteen  unless  they  have  received  an  employment  cer- 
tificate. 

(4) .  For  children  of  ages  fourteen  or  under  nothing  less  than 
regular  attendance  for  the  full  school  year  can  be  considered  at 
all  satisfactory,  due  allowance  being  made,  of  course,  for 
excusable  absences  due  to  illness,  etc.  Neither  industrial 
exploitation  nor  parental  exploitation  for  work  on  the  farm  and 
at  home  should  be  permitted  to  rob  the  child  of  his  legitimate 
education  and  destroy  the  work  of  the  schools.  No  child  can 
secure  an  education  by  attending  school  eighty  out  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  days  in  the  year.  Nor  can  any  school 
be  administered  with  any  degree  of  effectiveness  when  the 
attendance  of  pupils  is  irregular. 

(5).  The  exemption  of  children  "able  to  read  and  write" 
practically  negates  the  entire  force  of  a  compulsory  attendance 
law,  partly  because  the  requirements  of  ability  to  read  and 
write  represents  a  degree  of  educational  achievement  barely 
above  the  level  of  illiteracy,  and  partly  because  that  provision 
of  the  law  affords  a  loop-hole  through  which  almost  any  child 
nine  or  ten  years  of  age  may  escape. 


School  Population,  Enrolment  and  Attendance       77 

Beyond  question  one  of  the  greatest  educational  needs  of 
Virginia  is  a  really  effective  compulsory  attendance  law.  In 
the  recommendations  made  below  the  reforms  needed  are 
specified. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  for  purposes  of  the  school  census  school  age  be 
defined  as  five  to  eighteen  inclusive,1  and  that  school  popula- 
tion be  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  of  those 
ages. 

2.  That  the  school  census  be  taken  annually  in  cumulative 
and  continuous  fashion  through  the  office  of  the  division 
superintendent  and  under  his  direction.  That  census  should 
provide  a  card  index  of  every  child  of  school  age  in  the  county 
or  city  in  duplicate  on  a  uniform  card  provided  by  the  State 
Department  of  Education,  one  copy  of  each  card  to  be  on  file  in 
the  office  of  the  county  or  city  superintendent,  the  other  on 
file  in  the  school  which  the  child  attends.  The  card  should 
contain  data  including  the  following :  (a)  name  of  child,  (b)  sex, 
(c)  age  and  date  of  birth,  (d)  name  of  parent  or  guardian, 
(e)  address  of  parent  and  child,  (f)  school  attended,  (g)  reason  if 
not  attending  school,  (h)  distance  from  nearest  school.  Only 
additions  and  corrections  need  be  made  annually. 

3.  That  the  State  Constitution  be  amended  by  striking  out 
the  compulsory  attendance  provision  of  section  138,  and  that 
the  compulsory  attendance  law  of  1918  be  amended:  (a)  so  as  to 
provide  for  the  compulsory  attendance  of  children  of  ages  seven 
to  fourteen ;  (b)  so  as  to  provide  for  the  compulsory  attendance 
of  children  of  ages  fourteen  to  sixteen  unless  lawfully  employed 
and  unless  holding  employment  certificates;  (c)  so  as  to  provide 
that  children  of  ages  fourteen  to  eighteen  be  required  to  attend 
part-time  continuation  schools  wherever  and  whenever  such  are 
maintained;  (d)  so  as  to  provide  for  compulsory  attendance 
throughout  the  school  year;  (e)  so  as  to  eliminate  exemption  on 
the  basis  of  ability  to  read  and  write;  (f)  so  as  to  provide  that 
exemptions  for  physical  or  mental  disability  shall  be  granted 

1  In  a  later  chapter  of  this  report  it  is  recommended  that  the 
constitutional  provision  for  the  apportionment  of  State  funds  on  the 
basis  of  the  number  of  children  of  ages  seven  to  nineteen  be  amended. 
(C/.  Chapter  XXI.) 


78  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

by  the  county  or  city  school  board;  (g)  so  as  to  provide  that 
children  in  non-public  schools  shall  be  compelled  to  meet  the 
same  requirements  for  attendance  as  children  in  public  schools ; 
(h)  so  as  to  provide  that  county  school  boards  shall  be  empow- 
ered to  employ  attendance  officers  (usually  employing  the  part- 
time  service  of  the  local  constables);  (i)  so  as  to  require  each 
city  board  to  employ  at  least  one  attendance  officer,  whose 
duty  it  shall  be  to  assist  the  city  superintendent  and  city 
school  board  in  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  attendance 
law. 


CHAPTER  IV 

PROGRESS  OF  PUPILS  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 

[TP  to  this  point  we  have  considered  the  amount  of  educa- 
tion available  for  children  in  Virginia,  the  number  of  chil- 
dren enrolled,  and  the  character  of  their  attendance.  We  may 
now  consider  the  progress  of  children  in  the  schools.  Here 
several  problems  deserve  attention :  (i)  Up  to  what  age  do  pupils 
remain  in  school?  (ii)  How  many  years  do  they  remain?  (iii) 
How  far  do  they  progress  in  the  school  course?  (iv)  How  regu- 
larly do  they  progress?  (v)  How  are  they  grouped  in  different 
parts  of  the  course? 

i. — UP  TO  WHAT  AGE  DO  PUPILS  REMAIN  IN  SCHOOL? 

It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  proportions  of  chil- 
dren of  various  ages  attending  school  at  present  in  Virginia. 
The  latest  Federal  Census  gives  figures  for  the  situation  nearly 
a  decade  ago  which  cannot  be  employed  to  illustrate  the  present 
situation.  Neither  the  latest  State  school  census  (1915)  nor 
the  records  of  the  State  Department  of  Education  provide 
satisfactory  data. 

In  Table  15  are  presented  figures  showing  relative  numbers 
and  per  cents  of  pupils  of  various  ages  in  the  schools  of  eighteen 
counties  and  all  cities  of  Virginia  in  1918-19.  Those  figures  do 
not  indicate  the  exact  proportions  of  children  of  various  ages 
in  school,  since  the  common  assumption  is  false  that  the  num- 
ber of  children  of  various  school  ages  in  any  state,  or  for  that 
matter  in  the  United  States,  is  about  the  same.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  probable  that  the  figures  given  in  the  table  show  roughly 
approximate  proportions  and  suggest  certain  general  truths 
about  the  proportions  of  pupils  of  different  ages  in  the  school. 
Those  general  facts  may  safely  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1).  The  figures  indicate  that  children  remain  in  school 
fairly  well  up  to  the  age  of  thirteen,  but  drop  out  rapidly  after 


80  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

that  age,  the  proportion  fifteen  years  of  age  being  about  one- 
half  as  large  as  the  proportion  eight,  nine,  ten,  or  eleven  years 
old. 

(2).  In  all  probability  considerably  less  than  one-half  of  the 
children  remain  in  school  up  to  the  age  of  sixteen. 

(3).  There  is  no  very  significant  difference  between  the  pro- 
portions of  white  children  and  the  proportions  of  colored  chil- 
dren remaining  in  school  up  to  various  ages  until  the  age  of 
fourteen  is  reached,  after  which  age  larger  proportions  of  white 
children  remain  in  school.  This  fact  has  bearing  on  the  assumed 
affect  of  a  compulsory-attendance  law  on  the  problem  of  negro 
schools. 

(4).  Here  in  Virginia  is  observable  the  fact,  almost  univer- 
sally true  throughout  the  country,  that  non-city  children  tend 
to  remain  in  school  to  a  later  age  than  do  city  children.  The 
important  reason  for  this  is,  of  course,  the  more  numerous  and 
stronger  influences  of  industry  and  trade  operating  to  eliminate 
children  from  school  in  the  city. 

These  same  tendencies  are  observable  if  we  employ  another 
method  of  estimating  the  ages  up  to  which  pupils  tend  to  remain 
in  school.  From  Table  15  it  appears  that  the  largest  age  groups 
in  the  schools  are  those  of  children  eight,  nine,  ten,  and  eleven 
years  of  age.  By  those  ages  most  children  are  attending  school. 
An  average  of  the  number  of  pupils  of  those  ages  gives  us  a 
roughly  approximate  estimate  of  the  average  number  of  pupils 
belonging  to  each  age  group  and  we  may  estimate  school  attend- 
ance for  various  ages  roughly  on  the  basis  of  the  proportions 
each  age-group  in  the  school  is  of  that  theoretic  age  group. 
Employing  this  method  we  get  practically  the  same  suggestions 
as  were  afforded  by  the  figures  in  Table  15.  Figures  are  given 
in  Table  16. 

U. — HOW  LONG  DO  PUPILS  REMAIN  IN  SCHOOL? 

Since  pupils  enter  school  at  various  ages  it  is  important  to 
know  not  only  up  to  what  age  they  remain  in  school,  but  also 
how  many  years  they  tend  to  remain.  In  Table  17  are  presented 
figures  showing  the  relative  numbers  and  per  cents  of  children 
who  have  been  in  school  (including  the  present  year)  various 


Progress  of  Pupils  81 

lengths  of  time  in  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties  and  all  cities 
except  Richmond.  Those  figures  can  give  a  rough  indication 
only  of  the  proportions  of  children  who  remain  in  school  for 
various  lengths  of  time.  However,  it  may  be  noted  that  for 
each  class  of  schools  the  proportion  of  children  who  have 
attended  school  for  nine  years  is  less  than  one-half  as  large  as 
the  proportion  of  children  who  have  attended  school  one,  two, 
three,  four,  five,  or  six  years,  while  the  proportions  of  children 
who  have  attended  school  for  eleven  years  (the  standard  time 
time  for  the  completion  of  the  full  school  course)  is  much  less 
than  one-sixth  as  large  as  the  proportion  of  those  who  have 
attended  school  for  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  or  six  years. 

More  direct  indications  of  the  number  of  years  children  tend 
to  remain  in  school  in  Virginia  may  be  found  in  the  figures  pre- 
sented in  Table  18  where  estimates  are  made  of  the  per  cents 
of  pupils  who  have  remained  for  various  lengths  of  time  on  the 
basis  of  the  average  of  the  numbers  who  have  attended  school 
for  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years.  From  those  figures  it 
appears  likely  that: 

(1).  All  but  a  few  white  pupils  remain  in  school  for  five 
years  and  all  but  a  few  colored  pupils  remain  for  four  years. 

(2).  After  the  fifth  year  of  school  attendance  white  pupils 
begin  to  drop  out  of  school  in  fairly  large  numbers  until  more 
than  one-quarter  have  left  school  after  seven  years  of  attend- 
ance. For  colored  pupils,  dropping  out  begins  sooner  and  pro- 
ceeds more  rapidly,  more  than  one-half  remaining  not  more 
than  seven  years. 

(3).  Approximately  one-eighth  of  the  white  pupils  and  one- 
twentieth  of  the  colored  pupils  remain  in  school  for  eleven  years 
(not  eleven  grades) — the  assumed  regular  time  period  for  the 
completion  of  the  eleven-grade  school  course. 

The  importance  of  the  facts  disclosed  above  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  considerations:  (a)  It  is  universally  recog- 
nized that  after  the  age  of  about  fourteen  is  reached  numerous 
forces  tend  more  and  more  strongly  to  draw  children  out  of  the 
school.  Hence  it  is  important  that  children  receive  as  much 
education  as  possible  before  they  reach  the  ages  when  economic 
and  social  forces  exert  their  strong  pressure  for  elimination. 


82  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

This  means  that  children  should  enter  the  school  at  as  early 
an  age  as  is  consistent  with  the  best  interests  of  the  children 
and  the  proper  management  of  the  school  system,  (b)  Closely 
related  to  this  is  the  fact  that  until  and  unless  conditions  are 
very  much  changed  the  schools  cannot  count  on  retaining  many 
children  in  attendance  for  more  than  eight  or  nine  years  at  most. 
Hence  it  is  important  that  they  should  progress  through  the 
grades  as  regularly  as  is  consistent  with  their  own  interests  and 
the  proper  work  of  the  school  This  topic  is  considered  in  some 
detail  in  the  following  section.  In  anticipation,  however,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  the  conditions  called  for  are  not  well 
met  when  we  find  pupils  aged  fourteen,  fifteen,  or  even  sixteen, 
scattered  all  the  way  from  the  first  grade  of  the  elementary 
school  to  the  last  year  of  the  high  school,  and  when  we  find  in 
the  fifth  grade  of  county  schools,  for  example,  pupils  who  have 
attended  school  for  varying  lengths  of  time  from  three  years  to 
twelve  years — the  median  stay  in  1918-19  being  more  than 
a  year  above  the  standard  for  that  grade. 

The  situation  calls  for:  (a)  the  earlier  entrance  of  pupils  and 
their  regular  attendance  to  be  provided  for  by  a  compulsory 
attendance  law;  (b)  provision  by  better  grading  and  better 
instruction  for  the  progress  of  pupils  through  the  grades. 

iii. HOW  FAR  DO  PUPILS  PROGRESS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  COURSE? 

More  important  than  the  question  of  the  amount  of  educa- 
tion which  is  available  and  may  be  secured  by  children  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  more  important  than  the  question  of  the  length  of 
time  which  they  spend  in  school,  is  the  question  of  the  amount 
of  education  actually  secured  by  them.  Two  phases  of  this  prob- 
lem (the  character  of  attendance  and  the  length  of  stay  in 
school)  have  already  been  considered.  It  remains  to  consider 
how  far  children  progress  through  the  school  course  before  they 
leave  school. 

In  Table  19  are  presented  figures  showing  the  relative  num- 
bers and  per  cents  of  pupils  enrolled  in  various  grades  of  the 
schools  in  eighteen  counties  and  all  the  cities  of  Virginia  in 
1918-19.    From  those  figures  it  appears  that: 

(1).  In  the  first  grade  or  below  are  found  more  than  one- 
quarter  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools,  nearly 


Progress  of  Pupils  83 

one-fifth  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools,  nearly  two- 
fifths  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools,  and  more 
than  one-quarter  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools. 

(2).  In  grades  fifth  and  below  are  found  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  non-citj^  schools,  about 
two-thirds  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools,  all  but 
6.7  per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools, 
and  more  than  four-fifths  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  city 
schools.  Hypothetically  a  complete  and  uninterrupted  pro- 
gress for  each  pupil  would  mean  that  about  forty-five  per  cent 
should  be  found  in  these  grades. 

(3).  In  the  elementary  school  are  found  more  than  nine- 
tenths  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools,  all  but 
about  fifteen  per  cent  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools, 
nearly  one  hundred  per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in 
non-city  schools,  and  all  but  six  per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils 
enrolled  in  city  schools.  Hypothetically  a  complete  and  unin- 
terrupted progress  for  each  pupil  would  mean  that  about  64 
per  cent  should  be  found  here. 

(4).  In  the  high  schools  are  found  less  than  eight  per  cent 
of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools,  less  than  fifteen 
per  cent  of  all  white  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools,  less  than  one 
per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  non-city  schools,  and 
less  than  six  per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  city  schools. 
Hypothetically  a  complete  and  uninterrupted  progress  by  each 
pupil  would  mean  that  about  thirty-six  per  cent  of  all  pupils 
should  be  found  in  these  grades. 

While  the  figures  presented  give  a  general  idea  of  the  grade 
distribution  of  pupils  in  school,  and  suggest  the  fact  that  a 
relatively  small  proportion  of  the  pupils  enrolled  complete  the 
full  course,  or  even  the  course  of  the  elementary  school,  they 
do  not  give  us  anything  like  an  exact  estimate  of  the  propor- 
tions of  children  entering  school  who  progress  through  various 
stages  of  the  course.  Thus  we  cannot  determine  the  proportion 
of  white  children  reaching  the  seventh  grade  in  county  schools 
by  comparing  the  seventh-grade  enrolment  (3,481)  with  the 
present  enrolment  in  the  first  grade  of  those  schools  (11,457). 
This  is  because  the  number  at  present  enrolled  does  not  repre- 


84  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

sent  the  number  entering  school  seven  years  ago  nor  even  those 
only  entering  this  year,  but  those  pupils  entering  school  this 
year,  plus  those  promoted  from  "primer"  or  kindergarten  classes 
plus  a  large  number  of  pupils  who  were  not  promoted  out  of 
the  first  grade  last  year  and  who  have  remained  to  increase 
greatly  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  first  grade  this  year.  Like- 
wise the  number  of  pupils  at  present  enrolled  in  the  seventh 
grade  includes  not  only  those  who  entered  school  seven  years 
ago  but  some  of  that  number  plus  many  who  formerly  belonged 
to  other  groups  and  have  been  held  back  through  non-promo- 
tion, have  entered  from  other  schools,  have  been  accelerated, 
or  in  other  ways  been  added  to  the  original  group. 

Because  of  the  numerous  variable  factors  involved  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  secure  accurate  figures  showing  the  exact  proportions 
of  children  remaining  in  school  through  various  grades  without 
an  almost  prohibitive  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  However, 
we  may  secure  an  approximate  estimate  which  is  sufficiently 
accurate  for  all  practical  purposes.  Most  pupils  are  in  school 
at  ages  eight,  nine,  ten,  and  eleven,  and  of  children  in  school 
the  largest  age  groups  are  for  those  ages.  An  average  of  the 
number  of  pupils  of  those  ages  will  give  us  a  reasonable  esti- 
mate of  the  average  number  of  pupils  entering  school  each 
year,  and  the  per  cent  that  pupils  in  each  grade  are  of  that 
figure  will  in  general  give  us  a  fairly  reasonable  estimate  of  the 
proportion  reaching  that  grade  of  children  entering  school  in 
any  one  year-group.  Such  figures  are  presented  in  Table  20. 
They  suggest  that: 

(1).  Pupils  remain  in  school  for  the  most  part  up  to  the  fifth 
grade  in  white  schools  and  up  to  the  fourth  grade  in  colored 
schools. 

(2).  Dropping  out  begins  doubtless  in  the  fourth  or  fifth 
grades  in  white  schools,  but  does  not  become  very  significant 
until  the  sixth  grade.  By  the  seventh  grade  nearly  one-third  of 
the  white  pupils  have  left  school. 

(3).  Colored  pupils  leave  school  in  large  numbers  by  the 
time  the  fifth  grade  is  reached  and  very  rapidly  after  that  grade, 
particular^  in  the  county  schools.  By  the  seventh  grade  more 
than  four-fifths  of  colored  pupils  in  non-city  schools  and  more 
than  three-fifths  of  colored  pupils  in  city  schools  have  left  school. 


Progress  of  Pupils  85 

(4) .  The  proportion  of  white  children  in  the  non-city  schools 
who  reach  the  high  school  is  approximately  three-fifths  as  large 
as  the  proportion  of  white  children  in  city  schools,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  white  children  who  complete  the  entire  high  school 
course  in  non-city  schools  is  less  than  one-half  as  large  as  the 
proportion  of  white  children  in  city  schools.  This  is  in  part 
due  to  the  teaching  and  educational  organization  in  the  cities, 
but  also  in  part  to  the  lack  of  provision  for  secondary  schools 
in  many  rural  districts. 

(5).  Very  few  colored  children  reach  the  high  school  grades 
in  the  non-city  schools,  while  about  one-quarter  of  the  colored 
pupils  in  cities  reach  at  least  the  first  grade  of  the  high  school. 
In  very  few  parts  of  Virginia  are  high-school  facilities  provided 
for  negroes  and  even  in  some  cities  of  the  state  such  facilities 
are  entirely  lacking. 

(6).  For  white  pupils  in  cities  a  relatively  large  proportion 
of  children  reaches  the  high  school  grades,  as  compared  with 
other  parts  of  the  country.  In  this  connection,  however,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  in  Virginia  and  in  general  through- 
out the  South  the  high  school  grades  are  preceded  by  seven 
regular  grades  of  elementary  schooling,  as  compared  with  eight 
grades  below  the  high  school  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

iv. — HOW  REGULARLY  DO  PUPILS  PROGRESS  IN  SCHOOL? 

A  final  problem  which  must  be  considered  is  that  which  con- 
cerns the  amount  of  education  received  by  pupils  who  spend 
various  amounts  of  time  in  attendance.  How  regularly  do 
pupils  enrolled  in  the  school  progress  through  the  various  grades? 
Do  pupils  reach  the  different  successive  grades  of  the  school 
course  "on  time"  as  measured  by  the  standards  on  which  the 
course  is  organized  and  administered?  What  proportions  of 
pupils  reach  the  various  grades  at  the  "normal"  age,  below 
the  "normal"  age,  and  above  the  "normal"  age?  What  propor- 
tions of  pupils  reach  the  various  grades  after  the"normal"  stay 
in  school  for  those  grades,  after  more  than  the  "normal"  stay, 
after  less  than  the  "normal"  stay?  These  are  problems  consid- 
ered below. 

In  Virginia  the  school  course  is  organized  and  administered 
theoretically  on  the  assumption  that  children  enter  the  first 


86  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

grade  at  the  age  of  seven,  progressing  successively  at  the  age 
of  eight  into  the  second  grade,  at  the  age  of  nine  into  the  third 
grade,  and  so  on.  Actually,  as  already  pointed  out,  about  as 
many  children  enter  school  at  the  age  of  six,  or  even  younger, 
as  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  nothing 
standard  or  regular  in  the  ages  at  which  pupils  do  enter  school, 
many  straggling  into  school  at  the  age  of  eight,  nine,  ten,  or 
even  older.  The  lack  of  a  real  compulsory  attendance  law  works 
a  part  of  its  great  damage  through  the  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  ages  of  children  entering  the  first  grade,  making  it  neces- 
sary (especially  in  rural  communities,  where  separate  sections 
for  children  of  widely  different  degrees  of  maturity  are  impos- 
sible in  the  same  grade)  to  organize  classes  composed  of  children 
of  ages  all  the  way  from  five  to  sixteen  or  even  older  in  the  first 
grade.  This  disparity  in  degrees  of  maturity  among  pupils  of 
the  same  class  persists  in  successive  grades,  and  in  many  schools 
makes  real  education  totally  impossible  even  with  the  best  of 
teachers.  School  after  school  in  rural  districts  visited  by  mem- 
bers of  the  survey  staff  manifested  such  wide  variability  in 
maturity  among  the  pupils  of  any  one  class  that  effective  instruc- 
tion was  out  of  the  question  in  those  schools. 

In  Table  21  are  presented  figures  showing  the  median  ages 
of  pupils  in  various  grades  of  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties 
and  all  cities  of  Virginia  in  1918-19.  Those  figures  show  the 
following  facts. 

(1).  In  one-room  schools  for  white  pupils  the  median  age 
in  each  grade  from  the  fourth  grade  on  is  a  year  higher  than  the 
Virginia  standard,  and  two  years  higher  than  the  national  stand- 
ard. In  one-room  schools  for  colored  pupils  the  discrepancy 
between  the  standard  age  for  a  grade  and  the  median  age 
actually  found  for  that  grade  increases  from  two  years  in  the 
second  grade,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard,  and  three 
years,  according  to  the  national  standard,  up  to  two  and  one- 
half  years,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard,  and  three  and 
one-half  years,  according  to  the  national  standard  in  the  sixth 
grade. 

(2).  In  non-city  schools  of  all  types  for  white  pupils  the 
median  age  in  the  third  grade  is  a  half  year  above  the  Virginia 
standard  andfa  year  and  one-half  above  the  national  standard. 


Progress  of  Pupils  87 

The  difference  increases  to  a  year,  according  to  the  Virginia 
standard,  and  two  years,  according  to  the  national  standard  in 
the  seventh  grade.  In  schools  of  this  class  for  colored  children  the 
median  age  in  each  grade  is  approximately  two  years  above 
the  Virginia  standard  and  three  years  above  the  national  stand- 
ard in  every  grade  of  the  elementary  school. 

(3).  In  city  schools  for  white  pupils  the  median  age  for  each 
grade  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  is  approximately  half  way 
between  the  Virginia  standard  and  the  national  standard, 
though  the  median  age  in  the  first  and  second  grades  is  approx- 
imately the  same  as  the  national  standard,  and  one  year  below 
the  Virginia  standard.  In  negro  schools  in  the  cities  the  median 
age  in  each  grade  of  the  elementary  school  above  the  first  grade 
is  approximately  one-half  year  above  the  Virginia  standard, 
and  a  year  and  one-half  above  the  national  standard. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  in  the  first 
grades  of  city  schools  two-thirds  as  many  more  children  are 
six  years  of  age  or  younger  as  are  seven  years  of  age,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  in  the  cities  of  Virginia  the  entrance  standard  of 
six  years  (national  standard)  more  nearly  fits  the  case  than  an 
entrance  standard  of  seven  years  (general  Virginia  standard). 

(4).  Pupils  enter  the  high  schools  of  Virginia  at  about  the 
same  median  age  as  pupils  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  in 
cities  of  over  ten  thousand  population  possibly  at  a  slightly, 
though  not  appreciably,  lower  age.  In  other  words,  for  the 
state  as  a  whole,  it  takes  such  pupils  as  persist  in  school  as 
long,  on  the  average,  to  complete  the  seven  grades  of  educa- 
tion provided  in  Virginia  as  it  takes  pupils  in  the  states  of  the 
North  and  West  to  complete  the  eight  grades  of  education  there 
provided.  In  the  judgment  of  the  investigators  nothing  or 
little  is  gained  in  time  or  education  and  much  is  lost  through 
congestion  in  the  grades  and  through  poor  grading  by  the 
eleven-grade  course  of  the  South  as  compared  with  the  national 
twelve-grade  course. 

The  general  situation  disclosed  by  the  figures  presented  in 
Table  21  may  be  supplemented  and  substantiated  by  a  con- 
sideration of  the  proportions  of  children  of  "normal"  age,  over- 
age, and  under-age  for  the  grades  in  which  they  are  located. 


88  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

By  the  Virginia  standard  it  is  assumed  that  pupils  enter  school 
at  the  age  of  seven  in  the  first  grade,  that  eight-year-old  pupils 
should  be  in  the  sceond  grade,  nine-year-old  pupils  in  the  third 
grade,  and  so  on.  Ify  the  national  standard  it  is  assumed  that 
children  enter  school  at  the  age  of  six,  are  seven  years  old  in 
the  second  grade,  eight  years  old  in  the  third  grade,  and  so  on. 
The  actual  conditions  in  Virginia  are  somewhere  between  the 
theoretic  Virginia  standard  and  the  national  standard  as  far  as 
the  age  of  school  entrance  is  concerned.1 

Pupils  are  said  to  be  of  "normal"  age  for  any  grade  if  they 
are  of  the  theoretic  age  for  that  grade,  having  entered  school 
at  the  standard  age  and  having  progressed  without  being  held 
back  or  put  forward.  They  are  said  to  be  over-age  if  their  age 
is  above  that  set  by  the  standard,  and  they  are  said  to  be  under- 
age if  they  are  younger  than  the  age  prescribed  by  the  standard. 
In  Table  22  are  presented  figures  showing  the  per  cents  of 
pupils  in  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties  and  of  the  cities  of 
Virginia  who  are  of  "normal"  age,  over-age,  or  under-age  for 
their  respective  grades.  Because  of  the  varying  age  standard 
for  entering  the  first  grade  in  Virginia,  figures  are  given  both 
according  to  the  Virginia  standard  (entrance  age  seven),  and 
according  to  the  national  standard  (entrance  age  six) .  Those 
figures  show  that: 

(1).  In  one-room  and  two-room  schools  sixty  out  of  every 
hundred  white  pupils  are  older  than  they  should  be  for  their 
grades,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard,  and  more  than 
eighty  out  of  every  hundred  are  older  than  they  should  be  for 
their  grades,  according  to  the  national  standard.  In  negro 
schools  of  the  same  classes  seventy-eight  out  of  every  hundred 
are  over-age  for  their  grades,  according  to  the  Virginia  stand- 
ard, and  ninety-three  out  of  every  hundred,  according  to  the 
national  standard. 

(2).  In  the  larger  rural  schools  and  schools  in  towns  (not 
cities)  conditions  are  somewhat  better,  but  still  very  bad,  and 
in  all  county  schools  combined  fifty-seven  out  of  every  hundred 
white  pupils  are  over-age,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard, 
and   seventy-nine   out   of   every   hundred,   according  to   the 

»    See  Note  at  close  of  this  chapter. 


Progress  of  Pupils 


89 


national  standard.  Corresponding  figures  for  colored  pupils 
in  such  schools  are  eighty  out  of  every  hundred,  according  to 
the  Virginia  standard,  or  ninety-four  out  of  every  hundred, 
according  to  the  national  standard. 

(3).  In  cities  of  under  ten  thousand  population  the  per  cent 
of  over-age  white  pupils  is  42.6,  according  to  the  Virginia  stand- 
ard, and  69.6,  according  to  the  national  standard.  Corre- 
sponding figures  for  colored  pupils  in  such  cities  are  62.3  per 
cent,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard,  and  85  per  cent, 
according  to  the  national  standard. 

(4).  In  cities  of  over  ten  thousand  population  28.5  per  cent 
of  the  white  pupils  are  over-age,  according  to  the  Virginia  stand- 
ard, and  54.2  per  cent,  according  to  the  national  standard. 
Corresponding  figures  for  negro  pupils  in  those  cities  are  54.9 
per  cent  and  77.5  per  cent. 

Figure  3 

Showing  for  white  pupils  the  amount  of  over  age  in  1918-19. 

See  Table  22 


One-room 

schools 

All  non-city 

schools 

All  city 
schools 

Virginia's 
Standard 

f         61%           \ 

/         over  age          \ 

/          57%      >w 

/          over  age'         \ 

w1 

/^  31%      \ 

w 

/         82%          \ 

/         over  age          \ 

f         79%      \ 

/         over  age          \ 

/          57%      ^V 

f         over  age          \ 

National 
Standard 

(  A  ) 

\A.) 

—■^J 

\A/ 

^m^ 

w 

Beyond  question  there  is  a  tremendous  amount  of  retardation 
in  the  general  sense  of  over-age  in  the  schools  of  Virginia,  par- 
ticularly in  the  rural  schools.  Now  over-age  may  be  due  to 
one  or  both  of  two  causes:  (a)  entry  into  school  later  than  the 


90 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


"standard"  age,  or  (b)  failure  to  be  promoted  regularly  from 
grade  to  grade.  Likewise  under-age  may  be  be  due  to  either 
or  both  of  two  causes:  (a)  entry  into  school  at  an  age  younger 
than  the  "standard"  age,  or  (b)  promotion  more  rapidly  than 
is  usual.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  under-age  found  in  the 
Virginia  schools  is  due  to  early  entry  rather  than  to  rapid  pro- 
gress, especially  in  non-city  schools. 

Figure  4 
Showing  for  colored  pupils  the  amount  of  over  age  in  1918-19 
See  Table  22 


One-room 

All  non-city 

All  city 

schools 

schools 

schools 

f         78%           >. 

/         80%     \ 

/          56%         >> 

Virginia's                 j 

*         over  age           \ 

/          over  age         \ 

/          over  age          \ 

Standard 

^ 

f          93%          \ 

/          94%       X 

f          78%       X 

1 

f          over  age           > 

/         over  age          \ 

/          over  age          \ 

National                  1 

A 

If                 1                 1 

1           A.           1 

Standard          ' 

K±J 

\U 

W 

Over-age  in  the  schools  of  Virginia  is  explained  in  both  of 
two  ways.  Attention  has  already  been  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  age  of  entrance.  It  remains 
to  consider  the  extent  to  which  non-promotion  affects  the 
amount  of  over-age  manifest  in  the  figures  already  given.  In 
Table  37  are  presented  figures  showing  the  proportions  of 
pupils  in  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties  and  all  of  the  cities 
of  the  state  (except  Richmond)  who  have  been  in  school  for 
the  normal  number  of  years  to  have  reached  the  grades  in  which 
they  were  located  in  1918-19,  who  have  been  in  school  longer 
than  the  number  of  years  usually  taken  to  reach  the  grades  in 


Progress  of  Pupils  91 

which  they  are  located,  and  who  have  attended  school  less  years 
than  the  number  regularly  expected  of  children  in  the  grades 
in  which  they  are  located. 

From  those  figures  it  appears  that  nearly  three-fifths  of  all 
white  pupils  in  the  non-city  schools  and  more  than  one-third  of 
all  white  pupils  in  city  schools  have  spent  in  school  one  or  more 
years  more  than  they  should  have  spent  to  reach  the  grades  in 
which  they  are  located,  while  about  three-quarters  of  colored 
pupils  in  non-city  schools  and  nearly  three-fifths  of  colored 
pupils  in  city  schools  have  failed  to  reach  the  grades  which 
their  stay  in  school  justified.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  a  large  part 
of  the  over-age  found  in  the  schools  of  Virginia  is  caused  by 
the  failure  of  pupils  to  progress  with  a  fair  degree  of  regularity 
through  the  schools.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  of  course,  that 
all  pupils  should  be  promoted  regularly.  In  fact  such  a  situa- 
tion would  be  quite  contrary  to  sound  policy,  since  pupils  dif- 
fer markedly  in  ability  and  in  attendance.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
certain  that  a  reasonable  degree  of  efficiency  does  not  exist 
where  nearly  sixty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  enrolled  have  spent 
one  or  more  years  in  school  over  and  above  the  time  normally 
set  as  the  standard  for  various  grades.  This  is  the  situation 
found  in  the  county  schools  for  whites  in  Virginia.  For  negro 
schools  of  the  same  classes,  the  situation  is  almost  unbelieve- 
able — seventy-five  out  of  every  hundred  pupils  having  spent 
one  or  more  years  in  school  in  excess  of  the  amount  normally 
expected  for  their  grades,  and  more  than  forty  out  of  each  hun- 
dred having  spent  in  school  an  excess  of  two  or  more  years. 
Conditions  in  the  non-city  schools  need  not  be  compared  with 
any  abstract  standard  to  illustrate  the  unsatisfactory  conditions 
found.  Comparison  with  conditions  in  the  city  schools  of  Vir- 
ginia is  sufficient  to  point  the  moral  of  the  tale,  though  even  in 
the  cities  conditions  are  far  from  perfect. 

V. — HOW  ARE  PUPILS  GROUPED  IN  THE  SCHOOL  COURSE? 

Effective  education  is  vitally  dependent  on  the  grouping  of 
children  in  grades  so  that  pupils  of  approximately  like  degrees 
of  maturity ;  and  training  may  be  taught  in  groups.  Whenever 
pupils  of  ^widely  different  degrees  of  maturity  or  training  are 
grouped  in  the  same  classes  effective  education  is  seriously 
handicapped. 


92  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

What  is  the  situation  in  Virginia?  In  previous  sections  of 
this  chapter  it  was  shown  that  wide  variation  in  the  age  of 
entrance,  together  with  a  high  degree  of  retardation,  results 
in  widely  heterogeneous  groups  of  pupils  in  different  grades  of 
the  school.  A  complete  view  of  the  situation  is  found  in 
Tables  23  to  32,  which  show  the  age-grade  distributions  and 
the  grade-stay  distributions  of  pupils  in  schools  of  different 
classes,  in  Table  33  which  shows  for  each  age-group  in  the 
schools  the  per  cent  of  pupils  of  the  standard  age  in  the  stand- 
ard grade,  in  Table  34  which  shows  for  each  grade  the  per 
cent  of  pupils  in  that  grade  who  are  of  standard  age,  in  Table 
35  which  shows  per  cents  of  pupils  in  each  grade  who  have 
attended  school  for  the  standard  length  of  time  for  that  grade, 
and  in  Table  36  which  shows  the  per  cents  of  pupils  at  stand- 
ard grade  for  their  length  of  stay  in  school.  From  those  tables 
the  following  facts  may  be  learned: 

(1).  In  non-city  white  schools  pupils  fourteen,  fifteen,  or 
sixteen  years  of  age  are  scattered  all  the  way  from  the  "primer" 
(sub-first)  grade  through  the  last  grade  of  the  high  school.  In 
colored  schools  of  the  same  classes  the  situation  is  much  the 
same — it  could  not  be  much  worse — except  that  the  number 
of  colored  high-school  pupils  in  non-city  schools  is  too  small 
to  figure. 

(2).  In  city  white  schools  the  situation  is  better,  though 
here  again  we  find  pupils  twelve,  thirteen,  or  fourteen  scattered 
all  the  way  from  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary  school  to 
the  upper  grades  of  the  high  school.  In  city  schools  for  colored 
children  the  situation  is  noticeably  worse. 

(3).  In  non-city  schools  for  white  children  the  ages  of  chil- 
dren in  each  grade  of  the  elementary  school  cover  a  range  of  at 
least  twelve  years  and  great  disparity  in  age  among  children 
of  the  same  grade  is  very  much  the  rule  rather  than  the  excep- 
tion. In  schools  of  the  same  classes  for  colored  children  the 
situation  is  worse,  there  being,  in  the  second  grade,  for  example, 
nearly  twice  as  many  children  twelve  years  of  age  or  older  than 
eight  (standard  age  for  that  grade)  and  younger. 

(4).  In  city  schools  for  white  pupils  the  ages  of  children  in 
each  grade  of  the  elementary  school  cover  a  range  of  ten  or 


Progress  of  Pupils 


93 


eleven  years,  and  again  great  differences  in  age  among  pupils 
of  the  same  grade  is  the  rule.  Again  also  the  situation  in  city 
schools  for  colored  children  is  worse. 

(5).  In  non-city  schools  for  white  pupils,  children  who  have 
attended  school  for  eight,  nine,  or  ten  years  are  scattered  all 
the  way  from  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary  school  to  the 
upper  grades  of  the  high  school.  For  colored  schools  of  the 
same  classes  the  range  is  smaller — largely  because  retardation 
is  much  greater. 

(6).  In  city  schools  for  white  children  the  situation  is  much 
better,  though  wide  variability  in  grade  location  is  observable 
for  children  who  have  attended  school  for  the  same  period  of 
time.  These  statements  are  also  true  of  city  schools  for  colored 
children. 

(7).  In  non-city  schools  for  white  children  there  are  found 
in  each  grade  pupils  varying  widely  in  the  length  of  time  they 
have  spent  in  school,  e.g.,  in  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth 
grade  pupils  are  found  who  have  spent  more  than  eight  different 
lengths  of  time  in  school.  The  situation  is  worse  in  schools  of 
the  same  class  for  colored  children. 

Figure  5 
Showing  the  amounts  of  over  stay  in  1918-19 
See  Table  37 


One-room 

All  non-city 

All  city 

schools 

schools 

schools 

f         Wo      \ 

/         59%   ^\ 

/         35%     \ 

1 

over  stay         \ 

/         over  stay        \ 

^^^  over  stay  ^^* 

White  Schools          I 

& 

L^ 

w 

f       n%       \ 

/            76%           \ 

/           58%       X 

/ 

over  stay-         * 

/          over  stay!        \ 

/         over  stay         \ 

Colored  Schools      [ 

^ 

qy 

w 

94  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(8).  In  city  schools  the  conditions  are  much  better  both 
for  white  children  and  for  colored  children. 

Summarizing  the  facts  regarding  the  age-grade  and  the 
grade-stay  distribution  of  pupils  in  Virginia,  we  may  say  that 
in  the  cities  the  distribution  of  white  children  is  probably  neither 
better  nor  worse  than  is  commonly  found  throughout  the  coun- 
try, but  that  in  the  counties  the  situation  on  the  whole  can  be 
described  as  little  less  than  chaotic — a  judgment  which  has 
been  arrived  at  not  only  from  the  figures  presented,  but  also 
through  school  visits  by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  the  extremes  found  in  a  considera- 
tion of  the  aggregate  figures  for  a  number  of  counties  and  for 
thousands  of  schools  do  not  give  a  true  picture  of  the  situation 
in  each  county  or  in  each  school.  Nevertheless,  the  situation 
is  bad — very  bad — for  the  non-city  schools  as  a  whole,  and  for 
the  state  as  a  whole,  in  so  far  as  the  situation  in  the  State  can 
be  judged  from  the  situation  in  eighteen  or  twenty  representa- 
tive counties. 

The  situation  described  is  the  result  of  many  factors  at  work, 
especially:  (a)  entry  in  school  at  different  ages,  (b)  irregular 
attendance,  (c)  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  grade 
classification  on  the  part  of  teachers,  (d)  poorly  trained  teachers, 
(e)  the  lack  of  adequate  supervision.  Correspondingly  the 
proper  remedies  are:  (a-b)  provision  for  entrance  into  school 
at  the  proper  age  and  for  better  attendance  through  a  compul- 
sory attendance  law,  (c)  more  attention  to  proper  grading  and 
promotion,  (d)  better  trained  teachers,  (e)  provision  for  better 
supervision. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The  considerations  adduced  in  this  chapter  support  the  fol- 
lowing mentioned  recommendations  which  are  presented  in 
more  specific  and  detailed  form  in  other  chapters  of  this  report. 

1.  That  provision  be  made  for  the  earlier  entry  of  children 
into  school.    (See  Chapters  II  and  III). 

2.  That  provision  be  made  for  better  attendance.  (See 
Chapter  III). 


Progress  of  Pupils  95 

3.  That  provision  be  made  for  better  trained  teachers.  (See 
Chapters  VII— IX). 

4.  That  provision  be  made  for  better  supervision.  (See 
Chapter  XIV). 

5.  That  school  consolidation  be  greatly  extended.  (See 
Chapter  XV). 

6.  That  better  provision  be  made  for  the  classification  of 
children  in  grades  with  more  definite  standards  for  the  time 
allotments  of  studies  in  each  grade.    (See  Chapter  V). 

7.  That  the  reorganization  recommended  in  Chapter  XVI 
be  adopted. 


Note — In  this  chapter  normal  age,  over  age,  and  under  age  have  been 
calculated  on  the  basis  of  a  "one-year  span,"  i.  e..  on  the  assumption 
that  a  single  year-age  should  be  considered  standard  for  any  one  school 
grade — for  example,  that  pupils  in  the  first  elementary  grade  should  be 
seven  years  old  (Virginia  standard),  in  the  second  grade  they  should 
be  eight  years  old,  and  so  on.  There  is  some  reason  for  the  "two-year 
span"  sometimes  employed,  i.  e.,  for  assuming  that  normal  age  may 
properly  include  ages  seven  and  eight  (Virginia  standard)  for  pupils 
in  the  first  grade,  ages  eight  and  nine  (Virginia  standard)  for  pupils  in 
the  second  grade,  and  so  on.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  children 
reach  the  age  of  seven  at  different  times  during  the  year  and  may 
enter  school  when  barely  seven  years  of  age  or  when  nearly  eight  years 
old.  As  a  result,  some  children,  e.  g.,  those  whose  seventh  birthdays 
fall  in  August,  September,  or  October  may  enter  school  at  once,  while 
others  whose  seventh  birthdays  fall  in  December,  January,  or  later, 
defer  their  entry  into  school  until  the  following  September.  Thus  it 
happens  that  when  an  age  census  is  taken  registration  ages  may  be 
quite  misleading. 

For  comparative  purposes  Table  22-B  presents  figures  showing  the 
proportions  of  pupils  of  normal  age,  over  age,  and  under  age  according 
to  the  "two-year  span." 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  PROGRAM 

WAVING  discussed  the  extent  and  amount  of  education  pro- 
vided for  and  received  by  the  children  of  Virginia,  we  may 
begin  a  consideration  of  the  character  of  that  education,  dealing 
first  with  the  character  of  the  educational  program  offered. 
In  this  chapter  is  discussed  the  program  of  education  provided 
in  the  elementary  school.  In  succeeding  chapters  will  be  dis- 
cussed the  character  of  the  program  of  education  provided  in 
the  secondary  school. 

i. LEGAL  REQUIREMENTS  AND  THE  STATE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

By  section  702  of  the  Revised  Code  the  following  subjects 
are  required  to  be  taught  in  every  free  public  school  of  Virginia: 
orthography,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  civil  government,  drawing,  history 
of  the  United  States  and  history  of  Virginia,  the  "prevention 
of  accidents,"  and  "moral  education to  be  extended  through- 
out the  entire  course." 

The  State  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools  adds 
certain  studies,  and  sets  a  standard  for  the  schools  of  the  State 
involving  the  following  program: 

Reading Grades  1-7  Music Grades  1-7 

Spelling Grades  1-7  Hygiene,  etc Grades  1-7 

Writing Grades  1-7  Constructive  Work.. Grades  1-4 

Arithmetic Grades  1-7  Manual  Training Grades  5-7 

Language Grades  1-5  Sewing Grades  5-7 

Grammar Grades  5-7  Cooking Grades  6-7 

Geography Grades  4-7  Gardening Grades  5-7 

History Grades  5-7  Agriculture Grades  5-7 

Drawing Grades  1-7 

This  Course  of  Study  is  an  expression  of  the  best  educational 
thinking  of  the  State,  having  been  formulated  by  committees 
of  teachers  and  superintendents  in  Virginia.  It  is  a  clear,  con- 
cise statement  of  what  should  be  studied  in  the  elementary 


Elementary  School  Program  97 

schools  in  their  present  organization.  It  includes  brief,  but, 
on  the  whole,  admirable  statements  regarding  the  aims  and 
methods  of  study  for  each  subject  in  each  grade,  together  with 
a  list  of  the  books  approved  for  each  subject  and  grade  and  a 
list  of  supplementary  books.  In  general  the  course  is  thoroughly 
modern  and  in  harmony  with  the  best  practice.  It  should  be 
the  controlling  guide  for  teachers  and  superintendents  in  all 
but  the  larger  cities,  displacing  local  and  county  courses  at 
variance  therewith.  At  present  eleven  counties  in  the  State 
report  local  courses  of  study  in  operation.  For  the  most  part 
they  vary  but  little  from  the  State  course  of  study. 

li . THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  PROGRAM  IN  PRACTICE 

According  to  commonly  accepted  practice  at  present  the 
course  of  study  set  up  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  is  good. 
What  is  the  actual  practice  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the 
State?  To  what  extent  are  the  schools  carrying  out  the  State 
Course  of  Study? 

In  attempting  to  answer  this  question  members  of  the  survey 
staff  employed  four  methods:  (1)  investigation  by  actual  visits 
to  more  than  eight  hundred  schools;  (2)  interpretation  of  infor- 
mation supplied  by  the  supervisors  of  the  State  Department 
of  Education;  (3)  analysis  of  returns  made  by  the  teachers  in 
several  hundred  schools;  (4)  analysis  of  the  actual  weekly 
schedules  of  recitations  in  operation. 

Visits  to  the  schools  revealed  and  the  information  supplied 
by  the  State  supervisors  tended  to  substantiate  in  general  the 
conditions  indicated  in  the  discussion  which  follows,  based  on 
the  analysis  of  actual  programs  and  schedules.  Returns  on 
the  special  form  prepared  by  the  Survey  Staff  were  so  patently 
unreliable  for  very  many  schools  that  no  attempt  was  made  to 
depend  on  them. 

In  the  following  discussion  the  figures  given  and  the  con- 
clusions drawn  are  based  on  the  analysis  of  actual  weekly 
schedules  of  recitations,  with  comments  to  some  extent  made 
on  the  basis  of  personal  visits  to  school  and  the  information 
furnished  by  the  State  Department's  supervision.  Three 
major  problems  are  dealt  with:  (1)  the  studies  offered  in  various 
types  of  schools;  (2)  the  apportionment  of  time  to  pupils  in 


98  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

different  grades;  (3)  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  various 
subjects  of  study.  Attention  is  here  confined  to  non-city  schools, 
but  of  various  types  and  located  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

(1).  Studies  Offered:  While  the  cities  of  the  State  provide  a 
relatively  satisfactory  program  of  studies  as  measured  by  com- 
mon standards  in  practice  and  by  the  State  Course  of  Study 
for  Elementary  Schools,  the  rural  schools  of  Virginia  are  some- 
what limited  in  their  actual  offerings  to  pupils,  one-room  schools 
in  particular  having  scarcely  a  skeleton  program.  This  appears 
clear  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table  38  showing  the  approxi- 
mate per  cents  of  schools  in  whose  actual  schedules  no  special 
time  is  set  apart  for  the  study  of  certain  subjects  set  by  the  State 
Course  of  Study. 

These  figures  do  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  pupils  to  the 
extent  indicated  by  the  figures  have  no  contact  with  the  sub- 
jects listed,  but  that  to  the  extent  indicated  pupils  are  "taught" 
certain  subjects  only  in  an  incidental  fashion  and  without  defi- 
nite time  assignments.  Thus  the  fact  that  one-fifth  of  the  one- 
room  schools  fail  to  mention  writing  in  the  weekly  schedule 
does  not  mean  that  pupils  receive  no  training  in  writing,  but 
that  the  training  which  they  receive  is  in  many  schools  more  or 
less  incidental  and  hap-hazard.  As  a  matter  of  fact  in  many 
schools  of  this  class  pens,  ink,  and  suitable  paper  are  almost 
totally  lacking  for  proper  instruction  in  writing,  even  if  ade- 
quate time  provision  were  made.  Thus,  too,  the  fact  that  music 
does  not  appear  as  a  definite  subject  on  the  majority  of  sched- 
ules in  rural  schools  does  not  mean  that  pupils  have  no  contact 
with  music  through  a  limited  amount  of  group  singing,  but  it 
does  indicate  the  fact,  substantiated  in  other  ways,  that  sys- 
tematic training  in  the  elements  of  music  is  totally  lacking  in 
all  but  the  largest  schools  of  the  State.  Even  where  music  is 
found  in  the  weekly  schedule  with  a  definite  time  assignment 
in  the  program,  the  time  allotment  is  commonly  very  inadequate. 

As  indicated  by  the  figures  given  in  Table  38  and  as  appeared 
clearly  to  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  in  their  visits,  pupils  in 
the  one-room  rural  schools  have  an  impoverished  course  of 
study,  being  shut  out  from  contact  with  all  but  the  skeleton 
subjects  of  an  education  in  all  but  rare  cases.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  inherent  difficulties  of  providing  adequate  education 


Elementary  School  Program  99 

in  small  schools  where  all  instruction  must  be  furnished  by  one 
teacher.  It  is  also  due  in  part,  however,  to  the  lack  of  properly- 
trained  teachers  and  to  the  lack  of  proper  supervision  in  those 
schools. 

The  figures  given  in  Table  38  also  show  that  as  larger  schools 
are  considered  and  as  the  schools  become  better  graded,  the 
education  of  the  pupils  is  enriched.  Hygiene,  for  instance,  is 
taught  with  sepecific  time  assignment  in  nearly  all  two-room 
and  three-room  schools,  and  in  all  schools  more  highly  organ- 
ized that  subject  appears  in  one  or  more  grades.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  true  that  the  complete  State  Course  of  Study  is  effective 
in  very  few  rural  or  semi-rural  schools,  the  subjects  most  neg- 
lected being  music,  drawing,  nature  study,  agriculture,  sewing, 
cooking,  and  manual  training,  the  last  three  subjects  being  far 
more  effectively  taught  and  being  far  better  provided  in  colored 
rural  schools  than  in  white  rural  schools. 

For  1916-17  the  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent  reports 
only  5,738  non-city  children  engaged  in  the  study  of  manual 
training,  only  6,774  in  music,  13,538  in  agriculture,  46,059  in 
drawing,  4,791  in  domestic  science,  and  52  in  other  industrial 
subjects — those  figures  covering  high-school  pupils  as  well  as 
elementary-school  pupils. 

(2).  Apportionment  of  Time  to  Different  Groups  of  Pupils: 
What  is  the  amount  of  time  of  direct  instruction  received  by 
pupils  in  different  grades  of  the  elementary  schools?  The 
answer  to  this  question  for  the  non-city  white  schools  of  Vir- 
ginia may  be  found  in  the  figures  presented  in  Table  39 
showing  the  recitation  time  allotment  for  three  representative 
grades  in  rural  elementary  schools  for  white  children.  From 
those  figures  the  following  facts  appear: 

(a).  In  one-room  schools  children  receive  little  attention 
through  direct  instruction  by  the  teacher.  Whatever  educa- 
tion children  receive  in  such  schools  must  be  largely  self- 
directed.  This  is  particularly  true  of  children  in  the  first  grade 
who,  on  the  average,  receive  less  than  one  hour  per  day  of  the 
direct  attention  of  the  teacher.  In  one-half  of  these  schools 
first-grade  children  receive  less  than  fifty-five  minutes  of  the 
teacher's  time. 


100  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(b).  As  the  size  of  the  school  increases  and  as  each  teacher 
has  fewer  grades  under  her  charge,  the  amount  of  her  time 
devoted  to  children  in  each  grade  increases.  Even  in  two- 
room  and  three-room  schools,  however,  children  in  the  first 
grade  are  being  neglected. 

(c).  In  non-city  schools  of  all  types  children  in  the  lower 
grades  receive  a  very  inadequate  proportion  of  the  teacher's 
attention.  Thus  in  one-room  schools  pupils  in  the  first  grade 
receive  less,  than  58  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  teacher's 
time  received  by  pupils  in  the  seventh  grade.  In  two-room 
schools  the  first-grade  pupils  receive  about  75  per  cent,  in 
three-room  and  in  four-room  schools  about  63  per  cent,  and 
in  larger  schools  about  78  per  cent,  as  much  time  as  is  given  to 
seventh-grade  pupils.  During  a  five  and  one-half  hour  (330 
minute)  school  day  (exclusive  of  recesses,  etc.),  children  in  the 
first  grade,  on  the  average,  receive  the  direct  attention  of  a 
teacher  for  about  one-sixth  of  the  time  in  one-room  schools, 
for  nearly  one-third  of  the  time  in  two-room,  three-room,  or 
four-room  schools,  and  for  about  one-half  of  the  time  in  larger 
non-city  schools.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  younger  children 
have  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  teacher's  time  than  do 
the  older  pupils,  a  fact  which  is  all  the  more  significant  when 
we  realize  that,  the  younger  children  are,  the  less  able  they  are 
to  work  independently  and  to  direct  their  own  efforts.  There 
is  abundant  evidence  that  in  the  majority  of  non-city  schools, 
and  particularly  in  small  schools  of  the  predominating  type, 
the  interests  of  the  younger  children  are  being  sacrificed  in 
favor  of  the  older  pupils.  This  is  especially  true  of  small  but 
over-ambitious  schools  which  attempt  to  maintain  small  high- 
school  classes  to  the  great  detriment  of  younger  and  more 
numerous  children. 

(d).  The  figures  presented  show  clearly  that  there  is  little 
uniformity  among  schools  with  respect  to  the  amounts  of  time 
which  teachers  devote  to  children  in  any  one  grade.  Thus  the 
amount  of  the  teacher's  attention  devoted  to  first  grade  pupils 
in  one-room  schools  ranges  all  the  way  from  twenty  minutes 
per  day  to  one  hundred  thirty-five  minutes  per  day.  Similarly 
large  amounts  of  variability  are  found  in  every  grade  and  in 
every  type  of  school.     Unquestionably  differences  must  be 


Elementary  School  Program  101 

found  in  schools  of  different  types'.  Unquestionably  also  minor 
differences  are  to  be  expected  in  different  schools  of  the  same 
class  because  of  the  varying  number  of  pupils  in  different  grades. 
Such  differences  as  are  found  at  present,  however,  cannot  be 
justified.  They  are  due  in  no  small  degree  to  poorly-trained 
teachers  and  to  the  lack  of  supervision. 

(5).  The  Time  devoted  to  Various  Studies:  Having  considered 
the  studies  actually  provided  in  county  schools  of  various  types 
and  the  apportionment  of  time  to  different  groups  of  pupils,  we 
may  now  consider  the  actual  time  spent  on  the  different  sub- 
jects of  the  program,  limiting  ourselves,  however,  to  a  discus- 
sion of  the  time  spent  in  recitation  under  the  direct  guidance 
of  the  teacher. 

In  Table  40  are  presented  figures  showing  for  arithmetic  the 
time  allotments  for  class  work  with  the  teacher  in  schools  of 
different  types  and  for  grades  one,  five,  and  seven.  From  these 
figures  and  from  the  more  detailed  figures  which  form  the  basis 
of  this  table  several  important  facts  appear. 

(a) .  There  is  great  variability  to  be  found  even  in  schools  of 
the  same  class.  Figures,  for  one-room  schools  in  particular, 
show  that  there  is  no  common  standard  of  thinking  among 
teachers  as  to  how  much  time  should  be  devoted  to  the  study 
of  arithmetic. 

(b).  There  is  a  much  greater  degree  of  difference  between 
schools  of  various  types  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  time  to 
be  devoted  to  arithmetic. 

(c).  In  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  one-room  schools  less  than 
fifteen  minutes  a  day  is  devoted  to  recitation  work  in  arithmetic 
in  the  first  grade,  and  not  more  than  eighteen  minutes  a  day 
in  the  fifth  or  seventh  grades.  On  the  other  hand,  fourteen  per 
cent  of  those  schools  provide  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  min- 
utes for  arithmetic  per  day  in  the  first  grade,  ten  per  cent  pro- 
vide thirty  minutes  or  more  per  day  in  the  fifth  grade,  and 
fourteen  per  cent  provide  thirty  minutes  or  more  each  day  for 
arithmetic  in  the  seventh  grade. 

A  similar  examination  of  other  elementary  studies  in  schools 
of  different  types  shows:   (1)  that  the  State  course  of  study, 


102  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

itself  admirable  in  most  respects,  appears  not  to  have  had  its 
proper  influence  on  the  work  actually  done  in  a  large  proportion 
of  the  non-city  schools  of  the  State,  (2)  actual  practice  in  non- 
city  white  schools  indicates  that  on  the  whole  teachers  and 
supervisors  have  little  conception  of  desirable  allotments  of 
time  to  the  various  studies. 

Here  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  State  course  of  study 
gives  teachers  little  help  in  judging  the  relative  amount  of 
time  that  should  be  devoted  to  the  various  studies  in  different 
grades  and  in  schools  of  different  types.  The  only  "Daily  Pro- 
gram" outlined  is  practicable  in  the  relatively  few  larger 
schools. 

iii. TEXT-BOOKS 

The  character  of  the  education  provided  is  vitally  affected 
and  the  course  of  study  is  vitally  conditioned  by  the  character 
of  the  text-books  employed  in  the  teaching  of  various  subjects. 
We  may,  therefore,  consider  the  matter  of  textbooks  used  in 
Virginia,  dealing  (a)  with  the  list  of  books  selected  and  approved 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  and  (b)  with  the  extent  to 
which  pupils  are  actually  supplied  with  essential  books. 

(a).  The  State  List  of  Text-books:  By  section  611  of  the 
Revised  Code  the  State  Board  of  Education  is  charged  with  the 
responsibility  of  selecting  "text-books  and  educational  appli- 
ances for  use  in  the  public  schools  in  the  State  of  Virginia, 
exercising  such  discretion  as  it  may  see  fit  in  the  selection  of 
books  suitable  for  schools  in  the  cities  and  counties,  respec- 
tively." 

In  accordance  with  that  law  the  Board  of  Education  has 
selected  and  approved  certain  text-books  which  are  published 
in  a  "Revised  List  of  Elementary  and  High  School  Text  Books 
(1916)."  That  list  is  properly  divided  into  "basal"  books,  used 
regularly  as  the  central  basis  of  work  in  various  studies,  and 
"supplementary"  books,  which  are  intended  to  extend  instruc- 
tion. The  list  of  basal  text-books  appears,  on  the  whole,  to  be 
well  selected  and  to  include  books  of  the  type  necessary  for 
effective  education.  The  list  of  supplementary  books  is  good 
as  far  as  it  goes,  but  does  not  provide  books  of  certain  types, 


Elementary  School  Program  103 

e.g.,  (i)  there  are  no  ''complete"  selections  of  literature,1  such 
as  are  now  available  and  should  be  listed  for  grades  four  to 
seven,  (ii)  there  are  no  standard  history  stories  for  children, 
(iii)  only  one  series  of  geographical  readers  is  listed,  though 
there  are  now  many  other  excellent  books  of  travel,  story, 
industry,  etc.,  with  which  the  children  of  Virginia  should  sup- 
plement their  study  of  geography.  For  basal  text-books  which 
every  child  in  the  State  must  use  (with  certain  local  options) 
and  which  in  most  cases  he  must  buy,  careful  restriction  under 
a  policy  of  State  adoption  is  justified.  For  supplementary 
books  much  more  freedom  may  be  allowed  the  local  authori- 
ties for  selection.  The  present  supplementary  list  might  well 
be  extended  considerably. 

(&).  Text-book  Supply:  By  an  act  of  the  1916  session  of  the 
General  Assembly,  school  districts  were  permitted,  in  case  of 
an  affirmative  referendum  vote,  to  furnish  free  of  charge  to  all 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  all  books  adopted  for  use  in  those 
schools,  no  pupil  to  be  allowed  more  than  one  book  of  any  one 
kind,  free,  for  any  one  year.  It  was  further  provided  that  books 
for  use  in  the  schools  should  be  ordered  at  least  thirty  days 
before  the  opening  of  schools. 

As  yet  little  advantage  has  been  taken  of  that  law  and  in 
general  throughout  the  State  text-books  must  be  purchased  by 
the  pupils  or  their  parents.  The  great  difficulty  here  does  not 
lie  in  the  fact  that  the  expense  is  borne  by  parents,  but  in  the 
fact  that  the  responsibility  is  placed  on  them  of  seeing  that 
their  children  are  properly  supplied  with  text-books  and  that 
they  are  supplied  promptly  when  needed.  As  a  result  at  the 
beginning  of  the  school  year  many  children  in  rural  districts  go 
weeks,  or  even  months,  without  their  necessary  text-books, 
and  others — no  small  number — are  never  properly  supplied 
with  essential  books.  When  to  the  factor  of  parental  irresponsi- 
bility is  added  the  difficulty  of  properly  administering  the  sup- 
ply and  distribution  of  text-books  in  rural  districts  where 
stores  are  few  and  distant,  as  well  as  poorly  supplied,  great 
educational  loss  is  the  inevitable  result. 


1  By  "complete"  selections  are  meant  whole  pieces  of  literature, 
such  as  The  Christmas  Carol,  as  contrasted  with  excerpts  and  fragments 
commonly  found  in  readers. 


104  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  problem  of  text-books  was  examined  by  members  of  the 
survey  staff  on  their  visits  to  schools.  In  addition,  and  as  a 
check  on  personal  observations,  a  careful  analysis  was  made  of 
tabulated  returns  from  over  a  hundred  rural  schools  for  white 
children.  From  those  returns  it  appears  that  in  rural  schools 
hundreds  of  pupils  in  the  schools  investigated — undoubtedly 
thousands  in  the  State — do  not  have  a  full  equipment  of  the 
necessary  basal  text-books.    Figures  are  given  below: 

Whole  number  of  schools  considered 118 

Number  of  schools  in  which  some  pupils  lack  the  necessary  basal 

text-books 74 

Number  of  pupils  in  those  schools  lacking  one  or  more  of  the 

necessary  basal  books 1,445 

Number  of  classes  in  which  work  must  be  retarded  because  of 

lack  of  books  by  some  members  of  the  class 422 

Number  of  schools  having  no  books  for  drawing  (67%) 79 

Number  of  schools  having  no  music  books  (98%) 116 

While  these  figures  represent  conditions  ascertained  in  only 
118  white  rural  schools,  in  the  judgment  of  those  who  personally 
investigated  such  schools,  they  are  probably  not  far  from  repre- 
senting conditions  in  rural  schools  in  general. 

In  rural  and  semi-rural  schools  for  white  children  there  are 
practically  no  supplementary  books,  exceptions  being  few  and 
far  between.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  value  of  sup- 
plementary books  in  the  modern  school.  It  is  now  recognized 
that  to  confine  pupils  to  one  or  two  reading  books  for  a  whole 
year  is  to  rob  them  of  their  opportunity  for  an  education.  To 
provide  them  with  one  book  in  geography  and  one  in  history, 
which  alone  they  must  "learn"  for  two  or  three  years,  is  to 
stultify  their  minds.  The  list  of  supplementary  books  issued 
by  the  State  Board  is  somewhat  limited,  but  even  that  limited 
list  is  little  represented  in  the  work  of  rural  schools.  Personal 
visits  to  schools  by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  substantiate 
the  story  told  by  the  following  table  analyzing  conditions  in 
one  hundred  eighteen  white  schools  scattered  throughout  the 
State. 

Number  of  schools  considered 118 

Number  of  schools  having  no  supplementary  books   (16  have 

dictionaries) 60 

Number  of  schools  having  one  set  of  supplementary  readers. .  10 

Number  of  schools  having  two  sets  of  supplementary  readers.  15 

Number  of  schools  having  three  sets  of  supplementary  readers  15 
Number  of  schools  having  four  or  more  sets  of  supplementary 

readers 14 


Elementary  School  Program  105 

The  poverty  of  this  offering  in  the  rural  and  semi-rural  schools 
for  white  children  in  Virginia  is  all  the  more  significant  when  it 
is  remembered  that  in  rural  districts  school  libraries  are  seldom 
found  and  community  libraries  do  not  exist. 

The  supply  of  supplementary  text-books  must  always  be  a 
matter  for  the  most  part  depending  on  the  educational  interest 
and  intelligence  of  local  school  authorities.  Basal  text-books, 
however,  constitute  the  irreducible  minimum  of  educational 
equipment  which  must  be  supplied.  The  conditions  found  in 
Virginia  are  conditions  sometimes  found  in  almost  every  State 
in  which  the  responsibility  for  supplying  text-books  is  thrown 
on  the  pupils  or  their  parents.  The  best  school  systems 
have  long  since  adopted  the  policy  of  supplying  text-books  free 
to  the  pupils,  being  moved  to  that  policy  not  so  much  by  any 
desire  to  shift  the  financial  responsibility  from  parents  to  the 
public  as  by  the  necessity  of  ensuring  the  necessary  text-books 
and  supplies  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 

Experience  in  the  other  States  has  shown  that  a  permissive 
free  text-book  law  with  local  option  has  seldom  proved  effective 
in  those  districts  where  its  provisions  are  most  needed.  The 
law  should  be  made  mandatory  and  have  State-wide  applica- 
tion both  for  basal  text-books  and  for  supplementary  books 
and  supplies. 

iv. — INSTRUCTIONAL  SUPPLIES 

As  text-books  are  necessary  for  instruction  which  may  make 
actual  the  theoretic  education  provided  in  the  schools,  so  cer- 
tain instructional  supplies  and  equipment  are  necessary  for  the 
proper  training  in  all  subjects  and  without  them  some  subjects 
simply  cannot  be  taught.  Thus  handwriting  cannot  be  taught 
unless  pens,  ink,  and  suitable  paper  are  available,  and  unless 
pupils  have  some  place  on  which  to  write.  Thus  drawing  is 
impossible  without  appropriate  equipment.  Thus  manual  train- 
ing and  sewing  or  cooking  cannot  be  taught  without  the  funda- 
mental tools  and  materials. 

What  is  the  situation  in  Virginia  in  this  respect?  In  city 
schools  and  in  rural  schools  of  the  larger  and  better  type  the 
minimum  at  least  of  essential  supplies  and  equipment  is  reason- 
ably well  provided.    In  the  majority  of  rural  schools,  however, 


106  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

there  is  serious  lack  of  even  the  minimum  of  supplies  and  equip- 
ment, not  only  for  such  studies  as  sewing,  manual  training, 
cooking,  gardening,  and  the  like,  but  even  for  such  fundamental 
studies  as  handwriting,  drawing,  music,  geography,  and  history. 
In  other  words,  in  the  majority  of  non-city  schools  proper 
instruction  in  subjects  set  by  the  State  Course  of  Study  in 
Elementary  schools  is  frequently  impossible  and  always  limited 
by  the  lack  of  educational  supplies  and  equipment  necessary 
for  adequate  instruction.  These  statements  are  made  on  the 
basis  of  an  investigation  by  personal  visits  to  hundreds  of 
schools  and  are  supported  by  information  supplied  by  the 
supervisors  of  the  State  Department  and  by  a  test  analysis 
of  returns  from  one  hundred  eighteen  rural  schools  in  all  parts 
of  the  State.  Consideration  of  a  few  important  matters  will 
make  clear  the  situation. 

It  is  obvious  that  proper  training  in  handwriting  cannot  be 
provided  in  schools  where  pens,  ink,  and  suitable  paper  are 
lacking,  or  where  the  pupils  have  no  smooth  desk  surface  on 
which  to  write.  First-hand  investigation  by  members  of  the 
Survey  Staff  found  this  to  be  the  case  in  hundreds  of  schools 
visited.  In  many  cases  the  only  ink  supply  found  was  a  five- 
cent  bottle  on  the  teacher's  desk,  which,  if  used  at  all  by  pupils, 
had  to  be  used  in  turn.  Pens  and  paper  which  could  receive 
writing  in  ink  were  more  conspicuous  by  their  absence  than  by 
their  presence.  So  general  was  this  situation  in  small  rural 
schools  that  the  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  who  gave  hand- 
writing tests  to  about  ten  thousand  rural  school  pupils  were 
obliged  to  carry  with  them  to  the  schools  full  supplies  of  pens, 
pencils,  ink,  and  paper — and  also  supplies  of  paste-board  writ- 
ing pads  to  be  used  in  schools  where  the  desks  were  so  poor  that 
they  presented  no  surface  on  which  writing  could  be  done. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  at  all  strange  that  those  exam- 
iners found  many  schools  in  which  pupils,  even  of  the  upper 
grades,  had  never  received  training  in  the  school  in  writing 
with  pen  and  ink.  Neither  is  it  surprising  that  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  schools  reporting  to  the  Education  Commission 
stated  that  their  supplies  of  pens  and  ink  were  inadequate. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  added  that  actual  first-hand  inves- 
tigation by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  indicated  that  five  per 


Elementary  School  Program 


107 


cent  of  the  white  schools  and  forty-five  per  cent  of  the  colored 
schools  visited  had  desks  which  should  long  since  have  been 
consigned  to  the  wood  pile. 

Blackboards  are  fundamentally  important  for  instruction  in 
almost  every  subject  and  good  blackboards  must  be  considered 
not  merely  an  adjunct  to  otherwise  effective  instruction,  but 
as  absolutely  essential.  Yet  for  blackboards  in  405  non-city 
white  schools  and  167  non-city  colored  schools  the  scorings 
given  by  members  of  the  survey  staff  on  personal  visits  were 
as  follows: 

Supply  and  condition  of  blackboards  in  non-city  schools 


White 

Colored 

Grading  and  Character 

No. 

% 

No. 

% 

A — Perfectly  satisfactory 

37 
101 

151 

97 
19 

9.1 
24.9 

37.3 

24.0 
4.7 

4 
12 

21 

43 

87 

2.4 

B — Good,  but  not  perfect 

7.2 

C — Fairly   satisfactory,  but  defective  some- 
what . , 

12.6 

D — Unsatisfactory  and  approaching  useless- 
ness  • 

25.8 

E — Wholly  useless  or  entirely  lacking 

52.0 

Maps  are  necessary  for  iDstruction  in  geography  and  history. 
Charts  of  various  kinds  are  desirable  in  the  lower  grades  for 
reading,  language  work,  and  music.  In  some  schools  such 
equipment  is  almost  totally  lacking,  in  many  more  schools,  it 
is  so  antiquated  as  to  be  useless,  and  for  rural  schools  as  a  whole 


Supply  of  maps,  globes,  and  charts 

innon 

-city  schools 

White 

Colored 

Grading  and  Character 

No. 

% 

No. 

% 

A — Adequate,  modern  and  satisfactory 

B — Good,  but  not  sufficient 

19 

47 

110 
106 
125 

4.7 
11.5 

27.0 
26.0 
30.8 

0 
2 

14 

30 

121 

0.0 
1.2 

C! — Fairly   satisfactory   but   notably   insuf- 
ficient   

8.4 

D — Unsatisfactory  and  almost  useless 

E — Useless  or  entirely  lacking 

18.0 
72.4 

108  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

the  supply  of  maps  and  charts  is  quite  inadequate  even  for 
minimum  work  in  fundamental  subjects.  Personal  investiga- 
tion through  visits  by  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  resulted  in 
the  following  scoring  for  maps,  globes,  and  charts  in  407  non- 
city  white  schools  and  167  non-city  colored  schools. 

In  non-city  schools  supplies  and  equipment  for  work  in  music, 
sewing,  cooking,  manual  training,  and  the  like  subjects,  included 
in  the  State  course  of  Study,  are  found  in  very  few  of  the  larger 
and  better  schools. 

The  general  status  of  educational  apparatus  and  instruc- 
tional supplies  in  non-city  schools  may  be  judged  from  the  facts 
that  in  1916-17  the  average  annual  expenditure  per  county  was 
$65.73  for  "maps,  globes,  and  charts,"  $93.18  for  "libraries," 
and  $55.14  for  "blackboards."  For  "business,  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  and  agricultural  departments"  the  average 
expenditure  per  county  was  $34.79 — far  less  than  should  be 
expected  for  a  single  school. 

V. — HOW  MAY  NECESSARY  IMPROVEMENTS  BE  MADE 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  is  evident  that  in  the  non- 
city  schools  of  Virginia  there  is  need:  (1)  of  making  effective 
the  State  legal  requirements  and  the  standards  of  the  Board 
of  Education  as  set  forth  in  the  State  Course  of  Study  for  Ele- 
mentary Schools;  (2)  of  securing  a  better  and  more  standardized 
apportionment  of  time  for  the  different  subjects  in  each  school 
grade;  (3)  of  providing  that  necessary  books  and  supplies  are 
available  in  all  schools. 

How  may  the  State  of  Virginia  set  about  meeting  these 
obvious,  fundamental  needs?  The  State  Board  of  Education 
and  the  State  Department  of  Education  already  possess  the 
legal  right  to  enforce  Section  702  of  the  Revised  Code  (prescrib- 
ing the  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  schools  of  the  State)  and 
to  establish  the  standards  set  by  the  Board.  Through  their 
control  of  State  funds  they  have  the  practical  power  to  enforce 
the  law  and  the  regulations.  An  analysis  of  the  problem  sug- 
gests that  the  difficulties  to  be  met  and  overcome  are:  (1)  an 
inadequate  supply  of  well-trained  teachers  capable  of  carrying 
out  the  program  set  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  (2)  inade- 
quate supervision  (both  State  and  local)  to  guide  teachers,  to 


Elementary  School  Program  109 

stimulate  local  understanding  of  school  needs,  and  to  enforce 
the  State  requirements,  (3)  a  lack  of  understanding  by  com- 
munities of  the  serious  limitations  to  education  under  present 
conditions,  (4)  certain  defects  in  the  administration  machinery 
of  the  State.  Following  are  given  some  suggestions  for  meeting 
and  overcoming  those  difficulties. 

(1).  Provision  for  securing  a  more  adequate  supply  of  well- 
trained  teachers  must  be  made  by  (a)  paying  salaries  sufficiently 
high  to  attract  and  retain  in  the  service  capable  men  and  women, 
(b)  raising  the  certificating  standard  and  extending  the  influence 
of  teacher-training  institutions.  This  whole  topic  is  discussed 
in  Chapters  VII  and  IX. 

(2).    Provision  for  more  adequate  supervision  must  be  made 

(a)  by  increasing  the  supervisory  force  of  the  State  Department, 

(b)  by  the  apportionment  of  several  county  supervisors  and  the 
abandonment  of  the  fallacious  assumption  that  a  division  super- 
intendent can  possibly  exercise  proper  supervisory  functions 
over  the  schools  of  an  entire  county  or  group  of  counties.  This 
whole  topic  is  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  XIV. 

(3).  Communities  must  be  brought  to  realize  the  serious 
limitations  of  the  education  provided.  This  involves  a  State- 
directed  campaign  of  education  as  a  first  means,  and  as  a  second 
means  the  exertion  of  financial  pressure  where  it  is  necessary. 
No  school  should  be  entitled  to  receive  any  part  of  State  funds 
unless  fully  complying  with  the  minimum  requirements  of  the 
law  and  of  the  Board's  regulations  as  far  as  subject  offerings, 
time  allotments,  and  equipment  are  satisfactorily  met. 

(4).  Analysis  of  the  administrative  machinery  of  the  State 
suggests  several  measures  for  improvement.  The  most  impor- 
tant are  the  following : 

(a).  The  Department  of  Education  should  issue  a  carefully 
worked-out  schedule  showing  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  and 
supervisors  the  relative  emphasis  and  time  to  be  given  to  each 
subject  in  the  different  grades.  It  should  also  prepare  type 
programs  for  schools  of  different  classes,  programs  that  are 
practically  workable  as  well  as  educationally  sound. 


110  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(b).  Schedules  for  each  school  in  a  county  should  receive 
the  approval  of  the  division  superintendent  before  the  school 
year  begins,  either  directly  or  through  the  supervisors  working 
under  his  direction. 

(c).  Small  schools  should  be  forbidden  to  attempt  high- 
school  work  which  can  only  result  in  depriving  the  younger 
children  of  their  share  of  the  services  of  the  small  instructional 
staff.  The  act  passed  at  the  last  session  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly, which  is  designed  to  permit  the  teaching  of  high-school 
subjects  in  two-room,  three-room,  and  four-room  schools  under 
certain  conditions  is  not  to  be  approved,  even  when  partially 
safeguarded  by  the  provisions  that  such  practice  must  first 
receive  the  consent  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

(d).  The  law  permitting  districts  to  provide  free  text-books 
is  not  likely  to  prove  generally  effective  in  the  State.  It  should 
be  amended  so  as  to  provide  for  a  mandatory  State-wide  policy 
of  free  text-books  and  essential  supplies. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  Department  of  Education  prepare  and 
issue  a  schedule  of  the  minimum  amount  of  recitation  time  to 
be  devoted  to  each  subject  in  each  grade:  (a)  in  one-teacher 
schools;  (b)  in  two-teacher  schools;  (c)  in  three-teacher  schools; 
(d)  in  schools  having  four  or  more  teachers  for  the  elementary 
grades. 

2.  That  the  time  schedule  of  recitations  in  each  school  be 
submitted  for  approval  or  correction  to  the  division  superin- 
tendent before  the  opening  of  the  school  or  not  later  than  the 
tenth  day  after  the  opening  of  the  school. 

3.  That  no  school  be  entitled  to  receive  any  part  of  State 
funds  unless  and  until  it  meets  the  minimum  requirements  of 
the  State  law  and  the  minimum  standards  of  the  State  Board 
of  Education  concerning  subjects  taught  and  time  allotments. 

4.  That  one-teacher  schools  be  restricted  to  five  grades  of 
instruction.    (Cf.  Chapters  XV  and  XVI.) 


Elementary  School  Program  111 

5.  That  provision  be  made  for  a  more  adequate  supply  of 
well-trained  teachers.    (Cf.  Chapters  VII — IX.) 

6.  That  provision  be  made  for  a  more  adequate  system  of 
supervision.     (Cf.  Chapter  XIV.) 

7.  That  the  free  text-book  law  be  so  amended  as  to  make 
it  mandatory  rather  than  permissive,  State-wide  in  its  appli- 
cation rather  than  subject  to  local  option,  and  that  it  be 
extended  to  cover  all  books  (supplementary  as  well  as  basal) 
and  necessary  instructional  supplies. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  RESULTS  OF  INSTRUCTION  MEASURED' 

IS  my  boy  learning  to  read?  Is  he  learning  to  write,  to  spell, 
to  manipulate  figures,  to  express  his  ideas  clearly?  Is  he 
learning  to  do  these  things  as  well  as  other  children  of  his  age 
in  Virginia  schools?  Does  he  do  as  well  as  the  pupils  who  go 
to  school  in  the  best  city  school  system,  or  only  as  well  as  the 
child  in  the  poorest  rural  Virginia  school?  These  are  the  ques- 
tions which  any  intelligent  Virginia  parent  may  well  ask  about 
the  schooling  of  his  child.  He  may  further  ask  if  Virginia  chil- 
dren are  being  taught  as  well  as  are  the  children  of  Illinois,  of 
Alabama,  of  Washington,  of  North  Carolina.  As  a  citizen  of 
the  state  he  may  ask  these  questions  about  other  children  than 
his  own,  and  as  a  responsible  public  official  he  may  demand  to 
know  in  the  most  accurate  possible  terms  just  where  the  schools 
of  Virginia  stand  in  the  service  they  are  rendering  to -the  chil- 
dren of  the  state. 

To  find  an  answer  to  these  and  related  questions  the  Division 
of  Tests  and  Measurements  was  called  into  existence  by  the 
Virginia  Education  Commission.  The  Division  was  directed 
to  use  both  educational  and  psychological  tests  in  the  study  of 
its  problems.  The  work  was  begun  with  an  examination  of 
grades  three  to  seven  in  the  rural  schools  of  eighteen  selected 
counties  (Albemarle,  Amelia,  Appomattox,  Caroline,  Carroll, 
Charlotte,  Giles,  Greensville,  Henrico,  Isle  of  Wight,  Lancaster, 
Loudoun,  Northampton,  Rockbridge,  Rockingham,  Smythe, 
Stafford  and  Wise).  Later  tests  were  given  in  grades  one  and 
two  of  the  rural  schools.  The  work  begun  in  the  rural  schools 
was  extended  to  the  schools  in  nine  representative  cities  (Char- 
lottesville, Danville,  Lynchburg,  Newport  News,  Norfolk, 
Portsmouth,  Richmond  and  Roanoke)  where  children  of  all 


»Only  a  very  brief  outline  of  the  work  of  the  Division  of  Tests  and 
Measurements  can  be  presented  here.  Detailed  analysis  will  be  pre- 
sented in  a  special  report  to  be  published  later. 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


113 


elementary  grades  were  examined.  Finally,  a  study  was  made 
of  certain  parts  of  the  first  year's  work  in  twenty-five  high 
schools  of  the  State. 


THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  TESTS 

For  the  type  of  examinations  conducted  in  the  Virginia  sur- 
vey, it  is  desirable  to  use  standardized  tests.  Such  tests  differ 
from  the  ordinary  examination  set  by  a  teacher  in  several  ways. 
Chiefly,  they  are  more  carefully  prepared  and  they  have  been 
given  "to  large  numbers  of  children  in  widely  scattered  commu- 
nities so  that  the  examiners  already  know  in  definite  mathe- 
matical terms  how  high  a  score  pupils  of  a  particular  age  or 
grade  should  make.  Standard  tests  of  this  type  were  used  for 
measuring  the  achievements  of  children  in  reading,  spelling, 
handwriting,  English  composition,  arithmetic  and  algebra. 
Following  is  the  list  of  achievement  tests  upon  the  results  of 
which  the  conclusions  of  this  chapter  are  based. 

Table— 41 


Subject 
Reading 

Spelling 

Handwriting 
Arithmetic . . 


English 

Composition 


Name  of  Test 


Grades  in 
Which  Used 


Algebra. 


Thorndike  Reading  Scale,  Alpha  2 

Virginia  Reading  Test,  Sigma  8 

Virginia  General  Examination,  Exercise  1 . 

Ayres'  Spelling  Scale 

Starch  Scale  for  measuring  handwriting. . . 

Woody  Arithmetic  Scales,  Series  B 

Courtis  Standard  Test,  Series  B 

Virginia  General  Examination,  Exercise  2. 

Nassau  County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas 
Scale 

Hotz  Series  B — Addition  and  Subtraction, 
Equation  and  Formula 


3-7  (or  8) 

1-3 

3-7  (or  8) 

3-7  (or  8) 

3-7  (or  8) 

3-7  (or  8) 

3-7 

3-7  (or  8) 


1st  year 
high  school 

1st  year 
high  school 


The  psychological  tests  were  designed  to  secure  information 
supplementary  to  that  yielded  by  the  foregoing  achievement 
tests  and  scales.  Three  separate  intelligence  examinations 
were  used.  The  first,  known  as  Delta  1,  is  a  modification  of 
the  army  intelligence  examinations  Alpha  and  Beta.     The 


1 14  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

modifications  consist  essentially  in  a  selection  of  those  parts 
of  the  army  examinations  suitable  for  the  elementary  grades 
three  to  eight  and  the  first  year  of  high  school  and  the  addition 
of  other  similar  items.  For  grades  one  and  two  a  special  exami- 
nation known  as  Delta  7  was  arranged.  Both  of  the  foregoing 
examinations  were  given  to  the  children  in  groups.  For  indivi- 
dual examinations  an  abbreviated  form  of  the  Stanford  Revision 
of  the  Binet-Simon  tests  (Delta  3)  was  used.  Finally,  each 
teacher  whose  pupils  were  examined  filled  in  a  teacher's  record 
of  pupils  (Delta  2)  giving  the  name,  age,  grade,  and  years  in 
school  of  each  child,  together  with  her  personal  estimate  as  to 
his  scholarship,  industry  and  general  intelligence.  Near  the 
close  of  the  examination  it  became  possible  to  co-operate  with 
the  National  Research  Council  in  giving  a  series  of  twenty 
tests  to  pupils  who  had  already  been  examined  by  the  Com- 
mission's tests.  The  results  of  these  tests  are  available  to  the 
Commission  and  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  special  report  on 
tests  and  measurements. 

SCOPE  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

All  of  the  tests  noted  in  the  previous  section,  except  the 
Stanford-Binet  tests,  were  available  for  group  examination,  as 
many  as  twenty-five  or  even  more  children  being  examined  at 
one  time.  It  was  thus  possible  to  include  a  large  number  of 
schools  and  many  different  pupils  in  the  survey  and  to  get  the 
data  from  many  different  localities  representing  a  wide  variety 
of  school  conditions. 

Since  it  was  impossible  in  the  time  available  to  examine  any 
large  proportion  of  the  schools  of  the  state,  special  effort  was 
made  to  select  for  examination  those  schools  which  would 
fairly  represent  the  major  school  conditions  in  the  state,  and 
in  the  schools  examined  a  number  of  children  sufficient  to  rep- 
resent all  were  tested.  In  the  beginning,  the  counties  in  which 
the  examinations  were  to  be  given  were  carefully  chosen  so  as 
to  include  some  in  which  the  very  best  school  work  in  the  state 
is  being  done,  some  in  which  the  schools  are  most  in  need  of 
improvement,  and  others  in  which  the  school  work  is  of  inter- 
mediate quality.     Similarly,  within  each  school  division  the 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured  115 

schools  to  be  examined  were  selected  so  as  to  get  fair  samples 
of  all  the  work  in  the  division.  It  was  desired  that  the  results 
of  the  test  should  give  a  fair  picture  of  all  the  school  work  in 
the  state — good,  poor,  and  mediocre.  That  they  do  give  such 
a  picture  is  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  and  it  is  supported 
by  the  oral  and  written  judgment  of  a  large  number  of  school 
officers  in  the  state  who  are  familiar  with  the  methods  by  which 
the  examinations  were  made. 

The  scope  of  the  survey  may  be  appreciated  by  the  fact  that 
about  sixteen  thousand  different  children  were  examined  with 
from  six  to  forty  different  tests.  Of  this  sixteen  thousand  chil- 
dren about  five  thousand  were  in  grades  three  to  seven  of  rural 
white  schools.  More  than  one  thousand  were  in  grades  one 
and  two  of  these  same  schools.  The  additional  six  thousand 
white  children  were  in  grades  one  to  seven  (or  8)  of  urban 
schools  and  in  the  first  year  of  twenty-five  urban  and  rural  high 
schools.  In  all  about  three  thousand  colored  children  were 
examined,  of  whom  fifteen  hundred  were  in  the  rural  schools, 
one  hundred  fifty  in  the  first  year  of  the  colored  high  schools 
of  Richmond  and  Norfolk,  and  the  remainder  in  the  elementary 
grades  of  city  schools.  For  comparative  purposes  all  of  the 
children  in  the  Whittier  School  at  Hampton  Institute  were 
examined. 

While  this  total  number  of  children  is  not  a  large  per  cent 
of  all  the  school  children  in  the  State  it  affords  a  fair  sample  of 
the  entire  school  population,  and,  because  of  the  method  by 
which  they  were  selected,  the  results  do  show  in  a  fair  way  the 
conditions  of  school  work  in  the  state. 

The  testing  in  grades  three  to  seven  of  the  rural  schools  was 
done  between  March  17th  and  April  20th.  The  tests  in  city 
schools  were  completed  for  these  grades  within  ten  days  there- 
after, and  the  testing  of  grades  one  and  two  came  in  late  May. 
The  giving  of  these  tests  required  the  entire  time  of  the  staff  of 
six  persons  for  two  months,  and  the  time  of  thirty  others  who 
worked  from  one  to  four  weeks  each  under  the  direction  of  the 
staff.  The  latter  group  of  persons  were  chiefly  school  superin- 
tendents and  principals  in  Virginia,  members  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education  and  members  of  the  faculties  of  the 
normal  schools  and  colleges  of  the  state. 


116 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


THE  RESULTS  OF  THE  TESTS 

The  results  of  the  tests  and  measurements  will  be  here  pre- 
sented only  in  so  far  as  they  bear  upon  the  most  important 
school  problems.  Because  of  the  limited  space  in  this  chapter 
the  detailed  results,  for  the  most  part,  will  be  omitted  and  the 
general  conclusions  based  on  them  will  be  somewhat  dogmati- 
cally stated.  Abundant  evidence  for  all  conclusions,  however, 
exists  and  will  be  set  forth  in  the  special  report  on  tests  and 
measurements. 

Any  fair  interpretation  of  the  gross  scores  of  the  tests  must 
take  into  account  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Virginia  schools. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  fact  that  Virginia  attempts  to  cover 
the  elementary  course  in  seven  years  whereas  for  most  parts  of 
the  country  an  eight  year  elementary  course  is  standard.  The 
second  modifying  condition  is  the  fact  that  in  the  non-city 
schools  of  Virginia  the  white  pupils  are  from  one  half  to  one 
year  above  the  national  standard  age  for  each  of  the  elementary 
school  grades.  Colored  children  are  still  older.  The  details 
for  age  for  the  State  as  a  whole  have  been  set  forth  in  Chapter 
IV.    Further  treatment  will  be  given  later  in  this  chapter. 

THE  SEVEN-GRADE  SCHOOL 

Since  the  seven-grade  system  affects  the  interpretation  of  all 
the  results  its  consideration  may  be  taken  up  before  the  pre- 
sentation of  any  detailed  scores.  If  we  assume  that  the  elemen- 
tary school  course  is  a  fairly  fixed  quantity  we  may  say  that 
Virginia  attempts  to  do  in  seven  grades  what  most  schools 
attempt  to  do  in  eight.1  On  this  assumption  one  grade  of  the 
elementary  school  in  Virginia  equals  one  and  one-seventh 
grades  in  the  eight-grade  system.  This  may  be  seen  graphi- 
cally in  the  following  figures  where  the  horizontal  line  represents 
the  duration  of  the  elementary  school  course. 

Table— 42 

Showing  the  relation  of  grades  in  the  Virginia  system  to 
those  in  the  standard  system 


Grades 

Beginning  of 
Elementary 
School 
Grades 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

End  of 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Elementary 
School 

1    The  State  Course  of  Study  is  organized  on  that  basis. 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured  117 

The  divisions  on  the  upper  side  of  the  line  represent  the  seven 
year  course  and  those  on  the  lower  side  of  the  line  show  the 
eight  year  course.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  figure  that  a  seventh 
grade  Virginia  score  should  not  merely  equal  a  seventh  grade 
score  in  the  eight  year  system ;  it  should  equal  an  eighth  grade 
score  since  in  both  systems  the  children  at  the  end  of  the  respec- 
tive years  are  completing  their  elementary  schooling.  Similarly, 
a  sixth  grade  Virginia  child  should  fall  but  little  short  of  a 
seventh  grade  score  of  an  eight  year  system,  and  so  on  down 
the  grades.    The  table  of  equivalents  is  as  follows: 

Seven  Grade  System  Eight  Grade  System 

1  grade equals 1  1-7  grades 

2  grades equal 2  2-7  grades 

3  grades equal 3  3-7  grades 

4  grades equal 4  4-7  grades 

5  grades equal 5  5-7  grades 

6  grades equal 6  6-7  grades 

7  grades equal 8         grades 

RESTATEMENT  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

With  these  preliminaries  out  of  the  way  the  problems  raised 
in  the  first  paragraph  of  this  chapter  may  now  be  restated. 
Is  the  product  of  the  public  schools  of  Virginia  as  good  as  it 
ought  to  be?  Are  the  children  of  Virginia  parents  getting  as 
good  an  education  as  they  are  entitled  to  receive?  In  how  far 
do  the  children  of  Virginia  equal,  exceed,  or  fall  short  of  the 
scores  made  by  children  in  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Iowa 
and  other  States?  Do  the  Virginia  pupils  equal  the  standard 
of  achievement  set  by  the  authors  of  the  tests  as  valid  for  the 
several  grades? 

A  single  answer  to  these  questions  is  difficult  because  stand- 
ard scores  are  not  as  widely  available  as  helpful  comparison 
demands.  In  particular  there  are  few  such  scores  at  hand  for 
Southern  States  where  social  and  economic  conditions  most 
nearly  approximate  those  of  Virginia.  Further,  there  are  practi- 
cally no  available  scores  for  rural  schools  of  the  type  examined  in 
this  survey.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  compare  the  different 
types  of  Virginia  rural  schools  with  each  other  and  with  the 
Virginia  city  schools,  and  to  compare  the  city  schools  of  Vir- 
ginia with  numerous  city  schools  throughout  the  country. 


118  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

READING 

Keeping  all  these  facts  in  mind  we  may  now  examine  the 
results  of  the  Virginia  tests.  Because  it  is  the  most  fundamental 
of  all  subjects  we  may  begin  with  the  subject  reading,  which 
is  not  only  the  most  essential  tool  of  educational  advancement, 
but  is  also  one  of  the  best  indices  of  a  pupil's  general  educational 
growth.  The  subject  of  reading  is  here  used  in  the  somewhat 
restricted  sense  of  the  ability  to  get  meaning  from  printed  sym- 
bols through  silent  perusal  of  them.  The  tests  were  all  alike 
in  this,  that  the  children  were  given  printed  material,  asked  to 
read  it,  and  then  to  make  certain  simple  but  definite  responses 
with  the  pencil,  such  as  writing  words,  making  marks  on  pic- 
tures, or  underlining  words — responses  which  showed  definitely 
if  they  understood  what  was  read.  It  is  the  same  kind  of  ability 
a  person  must  have  if  he  is  to  read  a  book,  a  newspaper,  a 
magazine,  a  railroad  ticket,  or  a  sign  on  the  road. 

Careful  efforts  were  made  to  determine  this  capacity  among 
Virginia  children.  Three  different  reading  tests  were  given. 
Approximately  twelve  thousand  children  from  the  third  year 
elementary  to  the  first  year  of  high  school  were  tested  by  the 
Thorndike  Reading  Scale,  Alpha  2.  The  same  number  took 
exercise  one  of  the  Delta  1  examination,  and  more  than  three 
thousand  took  the  test  in  primary  reading. 

The  scores  for  the  Thorndike  reading  scale  are  given  in  con- 
densed form  in  Table  43. 

The  heavy  line  in  the  body  of  this  table  is  a  repetition  of 
that  in  Table  42  and  shows  the  equation  of  the  seven-grade  to 
the  eight-grade  system.  Above  this  line  are  the  Virginia  scores; 
below  it  are  the  scores  for  the  eight-grade  system. 

The  first  comment  to  be  made  upon  the  Virginia  scores  as 
shown  in  this  table  is  a  favorable  one.  Both  in  the  rural  and 
the  city  schools  there  is  distinct  progress  from  grade  to  grade. 
In  the  rural  schools  it  averages  .7  of  a  scale  step  throughout 
the  course.  In  the  city  schools  the  average  is  .6  of  a  scale  step. 
The  rate  of  progress  from  grade  3  to  grade  7  would  therefore 
seem  slightly  favorable  to  the  country  schools.  This  apparent 
advantage  is  not  real  but  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  third  grade 
rural  score  is  so  distinctly  below  the  city  score  for  that  grade 
that  it  offers  larger  opportunity  for  improvement. 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


119 


Table— 43 

Scores  of  Virginia  pupils  (white  only)  on  Thorndike  Reading  Scale 
Alpha  2  and  comparative  scores  for  other  schools.  The  Virginia  seven- 
grade  system  is  shown  above  the  heavy  line.  The  comparative  scores 
from  eight-grade  systems  are  below  the  heavy  line. 


Average  score 
Virginia  rural . . 

4.1 

4.9 

5.4 

6.2 

6.9 

Virginia  city  sec- 
ond half  year. . . 

4.9 

5.1 

5.6 

7.1 

7.3 

Virginia  Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV           V 

VI 

VII 

Standard             j 
Grades 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Thorndike 
Standard 

4.7 
5.1 

5.2 

5.4 

5.5 

4.8 

5.7 

5.9 

5.7 
5  4 

6.5 

6.8 

6.7 
6.3 

7.0 

7.0 

7.1 
6.5 

7.5 

34  Wisconsin 
cities 

7.3 

St.  Paul 
(mid-year).. . . 

7.7 

Patterson 

6.9 

If  we  compare  the  Virginia  city  scores  with  the  city  scores 
outside  the  state  the  comparison  is  favorable  in  grades  three, 
six  and  seven.  The  Thorndike  standard  score  for  the  eighth 
grade  is  7.5  and  the  actual  median  achievement  in  this  grade 
for  34  Wisconsin  cities  is  7.3.  The  median  age  of  the  Wisconsin 
pupils  is  14  years,  which  is  just  the  median  age  of  the  seventh 
grade  Virginia  children  whose  papers  were  counted  and  who 
scored  a  median  of  7.3,  or  exactly  the  Wisconsin  score.  Sim- 
ilarly, the  median  age  of  Virginia  city  sixth  grade  pupils  is 
exactly  the  same  (13  years)  as  the  Wisconsin  median  for  the 
seventh  grade  and  the  score  is  essentially  the  same.  From 
these  figures  we  would  conclude  that  Virginia  cities  do  succeed 
in  teaching  children  to  read  by  the  time  they  reach  the  end  of 
the  elementary  course — succeed  as  well  as  does  Wisconsin  or 
the  schools  from  which  the  Thorndike  Standards  were  derived. 

In  earlier  grades,  however,  and  particularly  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  grades,  the  Virginia  cities  do  not  appear  so  favorably. 


120  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  fourth-grade  Virginia  city  score  for  children,  with  a  median 
age  of  eleven  years,  is  5.1.  This  is  the  Wisconsin  third  grade 
score  for  pupils  whose  median  age  is  nine  years.  The  Virginia 
fifth  grade  score  for  children,  with  a  median  age  of  12  years,  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  Wisconsin  fifth  grade  score  for 
pupils  eleven  years  of  age. 

It  would  seem  from  these  figures  that,  while  the  Virginia 
children  acquire  by  the  end  of  their  elementary  course  an  ability 
in  reading  comparable  with  that  of  pupils  in  good  schools 
throughout  the  country,  they  arrive  somewhat  slowly,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  scores  of  the  earlier  grades. 

If  we  turn  to  the  rural  schools  the  condition  is  less  favorable. 
The  scores  are  in  every  grade  lower  than  the  Thorndike  stan- 
dard and  lower  than  the  Virginia  city  scores.  The  pupils, 
except  in  the  third  grade,  are  also  a  half  year  older  than  the 
city  pupils.  The  median  seventh  grade  rural  pupil  is  14.6 
years  old  and  scores  6.9  on  the  Thorndike  scale.  This  is  not 
only  .4  points  or  more  than  half  year's  progress  less  than  the 
score  of  the  city  seventh-grade  child  of  14  years,  but  it  is  less 
than  the  Wisconsin  score  for  the  seventh  grade  (median  age  13). 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  rural  children  in  Virginia 
are  from  a  year  to  a  year  and  a  half  behind  where  they  should 
be  under  good  school  conditions. 

This  loss  of  time  is  not  only  significant  for  those  pupils  who 
remain  in  school  until  the  end  of  the  course;  it  is  much  more 
significant  for  those  who  because  of  retardation  leave  school 
earlier,  with  the  reading  ability  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  pupil, 
an  achievement  much  below  the  needs  of  real  life. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  been  concerned  with  average 
and  median  scores  where  large  groups  of  children  are  taken  as  a 
unit.  Speaking  of  all  of  Virginia's  rural  children  or  all  her 
city  children  as  a  unit,  however,  does  manifest  injustice  to 
certain  schools  by  rating  them  lower  than  they  deserve  and  by 
making  others  appear  better  than  they  are.  In  the  city  of 
Richmond  the  seventh  grade  has  a  median  age  of  13.5  years 
and  scores  7.5  Thorndike.  In  Newport  News  the  seventh  grade 
median  age  was  13.5  and  the  score  7.6.  Similarly,  the  median 
age  of  fifth  grade  pupils  in  Portsmouth  is  11  years,  and  the 
score  was  5.8,  while  the  median  age  of  the  sixth  grade  in  Nor- 


SOME  REASONS  FOR  POOR  HANDWRITING  IN  THE 
RURAL  SCHOOLS  OF  VIRGINIA 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


121 


folk1  is  11.5  and  the  median  score  is  6.9.      Further  selection 
of  classes  which  score  high  would  be  comparatively  easy. 

In  summary  it  may  be  said  that  the  condition  of  reading  in 
Virginia  city  schools  is  fairly  satisfactory.  Such  deficiencies 
as  do  exist  will  be  easily  adjusted  when  once  attention  is  called 
to  the  situation.  In  the  rural  schools,  however,  there  is  a 
deficiency  that  should  be  met  by  vigorous  remedial  measures. 

HANDWRITING 

Tests  in  handwriting  were  given  to  all  elementary  school 
pupils  examined  from  the  third  to  the  seventh  grade  inclusive. 
The  papers  of  these  pupils  were  evaluated  as  to  quality  of  per- 
formance according  to  the  Starch  scale  for  the  measurement  of 
handwriting.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table  44  which  gives 
also  the  Starch  standards  based  on  the  results  of  tests  in  a  large 
number  of  American  cities. 

Table  U 

Quality  of  handwriting  in  the  rural  and  city  schools  (white)  of  Virginia 
compared  with  the  Starch  Standards 


Virginia  rural 

8.8 

9.4 

10.0 

9.9 

10.4 

Virginia  rural 
four    room    and 

9.3 

9.5 

9.5 
9.4 

10.0 
10.2 

10.5 

9.8 

11.0 

11.5 

Virginia  Grades 

I 

II 

III         IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Standard 
Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV         V 

VI 

VII     VIII 

Starch  Standards 

9.7 

10.3 

10.9 

11  4 

12.0 

12.5 

In  quality  of  handwriting  the  Virginia  scores  are  uniformly 
low.  The  seventh  grade  score  for  city  schools  is  11.5.  This 
is  the  highest  score  made  by  any  group  and  it  corresponds 
approximately  to  the  Starch  Standard  for  the  sixth  grade. 

1    Norfolk  City  has  an  eight-grade  elementary  school. 


122  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  standard  of  progress  for  the  Starch  scale  is  about  six- 
tenths  of  a  scale  step  per  year.  In  the  third  grade  the  Virginia 
city  children  are  within  two-tenths  of  a  scale  step  of  the  stan- 
dard. Because  of  the  seven-grade  program  they  should  be  above 
rather  than  below.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  fourth 
grade  city  children  did  not  write  as  well  as  the  third  and  that 
the  fifth  grade  children  wrote  better  than  the  sixth.  The  scores 
are,  therefore,  not  only  lower  than  they  should  be  but  the  pro- 
gress is  irregular. 

The  scores  for  rural  schools  having  four  or  more  rooms  com- 
pare favorably  with  those  for  city  schools  and  the  progress  is 
regular  from  grade  to  grade.  The  average  progress  is  four- 
tenths  of  a  scale  step  per  year,  which  is  less  than  it  should  be  by 
Starch  Standards.  The  one  room  country  school  shows  the 
poorest  record. 

SPELLING 

For  the  tests  in  spelling  each  child  wrote  twenty  words  pro- 
nounced by  the  examiner.  The  words  were  chosen  from  the 
Ayres  Scale  in  such  a  fashion  that  the  test  constituted  a  graded 
series  with  easy  words  at  the  beginning  and  difficult  words  at 
the  end.  All  words  were  such  as  were  known  to  be  within  the 
writing  vocabulary  of  elementary  school  children.  In  the  final 
scoring  each  child  was  marked  on  the  ten  words  best  adapted  to 
his  school  grade.  The  average  percentage  score  for  each  grade 
as  indicated  on  the  Ayres  Scale  was  66.6.  This  is  the  median 
for  84  cities. 

The  results  of  the  test  are  shown  in  Table  45. 

The  Ayres  Standard  based  on  results  from  84  cities  is  a  mid- 
year score.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  to  compare  it  with  the  mid- 
year or  first  half  year  Virginia  scores.  These  are  available  only 
for  the  city  schools.  All  other  Virginia  scores  are  for  the  end 
of  the  year. 

Each  grade  was  scored  on  words  adapted  for  that  grade  and 
upon  which  the  median  score  was  66.6.  For  any  class  to  be  up 
to  standard,  therefore,  its  median  score  should  be  this  figure  at 
the  mid-year.  For  the  scores  directly  comparable  (Virginia 
city  first  half-year)  there  is  just  one  grade  (the  fourth)  which 
equals  or  exceeds  the  standard.    The  Virginia  city  second  half 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


123 


year  whose  scores  should  exceed  this  standard  does  exceed  it  in 
three  out  of  the  five  grades.  Similarly  the  third  and  fourth 
grade  of  the  four  room  school  exceeds  the  mid-year  standard. 
The  most  notable  deficiencies  are  in  the  one-room  school 
(all  grades)  and  in  the  seventh  grade  for  every  group  tested. 
In  three  cases  the  deficiency  is  a  year  or  more  of  progress  as 
measured  on  the  Ayres  Scale. 

Table  b5 

Spelling  scores  of  the  rural  and  city  schools  of  Virginia  (White) 
compared  with  the  standard  scores  of  84  cities 


Virginia  rural 

Virginia  rural 
four-room  and 

61. 

71. 

9 

8 

54 
68 

.1 
.1 

56.8 
61.5 

54.6 
62.6 

52.6 

58.7 

Virginia  city  first 
half  year 

57.8 
69.6 

67.0 
63.8 

63.5 
68.3 

57.3 
69.5 

58.6 

Virginia  city  sec- 
ond half  year — 

63.1 

Virginia  Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Standard 
Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Ayres  Standard. . 

66.6 

66.6 

66.6 

66.6 

66.6 

78.2 

ARITHMETIC 

Are  Virginia  children  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  and  skill 
in  the  use  of  arithmetical  processes?  To  answer  this  question 
we  have  data  from  the  Woody  tests.  Judged  by  the  standard 
scores  in  these  tests  the  pupils  in  the  schools  of  Virginia  are 
not  receiving  as  good  instruction  as  they  are  entitled  to,  for, 
as  a  whole,  they  rank  low.  Doubtless,  the  most  fundamental 
arithmetic  ability  which  children  acquire  in  school  is  the  ability 
to  add.  The  Woody  Standard  for  eighth  grade  children  made 
by  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year  is  18.5.  This 
should  be  nearly  equalled  by  Virginia  children  at  the  end  of  the 


124 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


sixth  year,  since  the  latter  have  but  one  more  year  of  elementary 
schooling,  due  to  the  seven  year  course.  Virginia  children  do 
not  measure  up  to  this  standard.  The  average  seventh  grade 
score  for  Virginia  city  children  at  the  end  of  the  year  is  15.9 
which  is  the  sixth  grade  Woody  Standard  for  the  beginning  of 
the  year,  and  it  is  15.1,  or  less  than  sixth  grade  Woody  Stand- 
ard for  the  seventh  grade,  in  the  best  graded  rural  schools. 
For  the  one  room  rural  schools  it  is  only  13.5.  The  results  of 
the  tests  may  be  seen  in  Table  46. 


Table  46 

Showing  the  scores  of  Virginia  white  children  in  addition,  compared  with 
the  standards  for  grades  three  to  seven   (Woody  Arithmetic  Scales) 


Virginia  rural 
four-room  and 
over 

8.3 

11 

9. 

12.7 

13,9 

15.1 

Virginia  city  sec- 
half  year 

9.4 

12.4 

14.4 

15.2 

15.9 

Virginia  Grades       I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Standard 
Grades 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Woody  Standards 

11.0 

12.3 
ll-S 

14.0 

14.5 
14.fi 

16.0 

16.0 

15.7 

18.0 

16.7 
16.6 

18.5 

Pittsburgh 
(mid-year) 

Seattle 

17.2 

If  we  measure  the  Virginia  schools  by  the  Woody  Standard 
we  find  that  they  are  below  the  same  numbered  grades  an 
average  of  1.3  problems  for  the  non-city  schools  and  .3  problems 
for  the  city  schools.  The  real  deficiency  of  the  Virginia  chil- 
dren is  greater  than  this  however  since  a  fifth  grade  in  Virginia 
is  supposedly  more  advanced  than  a  fifth  grade  in  the  eight 
year  school. 

In  interpreting  the  scores  in  this  table  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
in  mind  the  general  over-age  of  Virginia  children,  which  makes 
their  defiency  greater  than  would  appear  from  the  table.     In 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured  125 

the  seventh  grade  of  Virginia  rural  schools  the  average  age  of 
pupils  is  14|  years  and  this  score  is  15.1  or  about  midway 
between  the  Woody  Standards  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year.  As  compared  with  either  Seattle 
or  Pittsburg  both  city  and  non-city  scores  in  Virginia  are  lower 
for  every  grade  than  are  those  of  the  two  cities  mentioned  and 
the  inference  is  that  the  condition  of  the  teaching  of  addition  in 
the  Virginia  schools  is  in  need  of  distinct  improvement. 

What  is  true  of  addition  is  generally  true  of  the  results  in 
substraction,  multiplication  and  division.1  Rarely  do  the  Vir- 
ginia scores  equal  the  Woody  standards.  As  compared  with 
good  city  schools  throughout  the  country  they  are  almost 
uniformly  low. 

As  in  the  case  of  reading  the  comparison  of  the  average  score 
obscures  the  fact  that  certain  schools  make  good  records.  The 
Robert  E.  Lee  School  at  Norfolk2  scores  16.4  in  the  6B  grade, 
which  is  approximately  the  Woody  Standard,  and  the  Park 
Street  School  in  Roanoke  scores  12.2  in  the  third  grade,  which 
is  above  the  third  grade  Woody  Standard.  Other  instances 
of  good  scores  could  be  cited.  The  fact  that  there  are  some 
schools  scoring  above  the  median,  however,  implies  that  there 
are  an  equal  number  of  children  below.  It  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  select  from  among  the  schools  of  practically  any 
school  division  where  the  tests  were  given,  some  which  fell  much 
below  the  Virginia  average. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  PUPILS 

The  modern  school  has  developed  extensively  the  system  of 
teaching  children  in  groups.  With  the  extension  of  schooling 
to  large  numbers  there  has  not  yet  appeared  any  generally 
accepted  way  of  avoiding  the  teaching  of  from  ten  to  forty 
pupils  the  same  subject  at  the  same  time.  The  method  has 
always  presented  grave  difficulties  because  it  is  not  easy  to 
bring  together  pupils  with  like  minds  and  of  equal  stages  of 
development.  Age  is  not  a  sufficient  criterion  for  such  grouping 
because  some  children  develop  more  rapidly  than  others  do. 

1    Details  of  the  scores  in  those  processes  must  be  reserved  for  the 
special  report. 
a    Norfolk  City  has  an  eight-grade  elementary  school  course. 


126  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  ability  to  pass  the  ordinary  school  examination  is  not 
sufficient  because  some  children  can  do  much  more  than  the 
examinations  require.  The  teacher's  judgment  is  not  always 
correct  because  the  ordinary  methods  of  observation  employed 
by  teachers  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  detect  real  differ- 
ences in  ability.  The  usual  tendency  of  teachers  is  to  rate  dull 
children  better  than  they  are  and  to  rate  superior  children  lower 
than  they  deserve.  While  all  these  criteria  (age,  examinations, 
teachers'  judgments)  are  helpful  means  of  classification,  they 
are  inadequate  measures  and  frequently  lead  to  such  incon- 
gruous grouping  as  make  effective  class  instruction  impossible. 

That  educational  work  in  Virginia  suffers  from  such  incon- 
gruous grouping  of  children  is  easy  of  demonstration.  Particu- 
lar attention  will  be  given  to  this  subject  in  the  special  report 
on  tests  and  measurements,  but  certain  illustrative  cases  may 
be  given  here.  The  Survey  has  available  for  a  study  of  this 
situation  not  only  the  results  of  the  group  examinations,  but 
also  individual  examinations  on  about  2,000  children.  These 
individual  examinations  were  made  with  the  Stanford-Binet 
tests  and  the  results  are  stated  in  terms  of  mental  age  of  the 
individual  children,  a  mental  age  of  six  meaning  a  mentality 
equal  to  that  of  the  average  six  year  old  child. 

To  illustrate  a  common  situation,  we  may  take  the  Glen  Allen 
School  in  Henrico  County.  The  third  grade  in  this  school  is 
composed  of  twenty-eight  children  all  of  whom  were  examined 
with  the  Stanford-Binet  tests.  The  median  chronological  age  of 
the  group  is  10.2  years.  The  median  mental  age  is  9.5.  It  is  there- 
fore an  approximately  normal  mental  group.  There  is,  however, 
one  child  in  the  group  who  has  a  mental  age  of  8.1  years,  and 
another  whose  mental  age  is  12.4,  the  other  children  being  of 
different  mental  ages  between  these  two  extremes.  There  is  a 
mental  difference  between  the  two  children  mentioned  equivalent 
to  the  mental  growth  which  a  normal  child  makes  in  four  years. 
It  does  not  require  much  insight  to  know  that  these  two  chil- 
dren require  different  teaching  methods.  One  of  them  is  the 
equivalent  of  an  average  second  grade  child,  and  the  other  is 
equal  to  the  average  child  in  the  sixth  grade. 

The  condition  of  this  Glen  Allen  class  is  not  peculiar.  In 
grade  4B  of  the  Ginter  Park  School  (Richmond)  there  is  one 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


127 


child  with  a  mentality  of  14  years  and  3  months,  and  another 
whose  mentality  is  that  of  a  child  nine  years  and  seven  months 
old.  In  the  Highland  Springs  fifth  grade  of  forty-six  pupils, 
nine  read  equal  to  the  Thorndike  Standard  for  the  third  grade, 
and  five  others  read  equal  to  the  standard  for  the  sixth  grade. 
Somewhat  similar  conditions  can  be  found  in  practically  any 

school. 

As  indicated  earlier,  such  conditions  are  not  peculiar  to  the 
schools  of  Virginia,  but  their  existence  here  in  a  somewhat 
aggravated  form,  particularly  in  the  rural  schools,  demands 
attention  in  this  chapter. 

The  best  general  view  of  the  situation  may  be  obtained  from 
the  results  of  the  Delta  1  tests.  Experience  with  this  test  shows 
that  it  indicates  to  a  high  degree  and  with  a  fair  degree  of  accu- 
racy the  general  ability  of  children  to  do  school  work. 

In  Table  47  are  given  the  median  grade  scores  for  Virginia 
city  children. 

Table  Jfl 

Showing  the  median  scores  made   by  white  children  in  the 
cities  of  Virginia  on  the  general  examination  (Delta  1) . 


Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

Scores 

38 

58 

77 

92 

103 

If  we  examine  the  scores  in  this  table  we  see  that  there  is  a 
step  from  one  grade  to  the  next  of  almost  sixteen  points,  a 
little  more  in  the  lower  grades  and  a  little  less  in  the  upper 
grades.  The  fifth  grade  score  is  77.  We  may  interpret  these 
figures  as  meaning  that  an  average  fifth  grade  child  is  one  whose 
score  is  approximately  nineteen  points  above  the  score  for  the 
fourth  grade  and  about  sixteen  points  below  the  score  for  the 
sixth  grade.  If  a  fifth  grade  pupil  should  exceed  these  limits 
of  variation  he  should  advance  into  the  sixth  grade  or  drop 
back  into  the  fourth  grade. 

Now  what  do  we  find  in  an  examination  of  Virginia's  fifth 
grade  classes?  Only  random  cases  may  be  cited.  The  5A  class 
of  twenty  pupils  in  the  Midway  School  at  Charlottesville  has 


128  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

four  pupils  who  score  38  or  less,  which  is  about  third  grade 
ability,  and  it  has  one  child  who  scores  94  or  approximately 
sixth  grade  quality.  Of  fifteen  pupils  in  the  5B  class  in  one 
Portsmouth  school  five  pupils  score  95  or  better,  about  sixth 
grade  standard,  and  three  pupils  score  below  70.  Of  fifteen 
5B  pupils  in  the  Commerce  Street  School  of  Roanoke  four  have 
scores  equal  to  sixth  grade  score  or  better,  and  there  are  three 
as  low  as  or  lower  than  the  fourth  grade  median.  The  distribu- 
tion is  greater  in  the  rural  schools  than  in  the  cities.  Of  seven 
hundred  twenty-three  pupils  in  fifty-five  schools  having  four 
or  more  rooms,  46  are  below  the  third  grade  median;  146  are 
between  the  third  and  fourth  grade  medians;  twenty-one  are 
as  good  as  the  seventh  grade  medians;  and  twenty-five  others 
score  equal  to  the  sixth  grade  or  beyond.  The  remaining  450 
are  between  the  fourth  grade  median  and  the  sixth  grade  median. 
Yet,  all  of  these  pupils  are  ranked  as  fifth  grade  pupils  and 
must  follow  the  same  course  of  study  and  are  expected  to  com- 
plete it  in  two  additional  years.  Forty-six  of  them  under  good 
conditions  could  complete  it  in  one  year.  For  forty-six  others 
it  will  require  four  years.  Situations  of  this  sort  can  be  shown 
for  any  grade  and  in  almost  any  class  examined. 

Radical  and  definite  steps  should  be  taken  for  improvement. 
First  of  all  there  should  be  an  improvement  in  the  methods  of 
determining  the  classification.  It  is  not  enough  that  a  child 
has  reached  a  certain  age,  that  he  has  been  in  school  a  certain 
number  of  years,  that  he  has  followed  a  particular  course  of 
study  and  passed  the  examinations  set  by  his  teachers.  All  of 
these  matters  are  important  but  the  knowledge  which  a  teacher 
gets  about  a  child  from  these  sources  should  be  supplemented 
by  the  pupils'  scores  in  standard  achievement  tests,  particu- 
larly in  reading,  and  by  his  scores  in  mental  tests  where  these 
can  be  effectively  given.  If  teachers  and  principals  will  learn 
to  use  these  standard  mental  and  achievement  tests  they  will 
be  better  able  to  group  pupils  according  to  capacity  than  they 
are  now  doing. 

A  thorough  going  attempt  to  classify  children  will  inevitably 
lead  to  the  organization  of  special  classes.  In  the  first  place 
the  feeble  minded  will  be  separated  and  should  be  segregated. 
For  such  children  the  State  should  establish  a  State  school 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured  129 

where  they  may  be  gathered  together  and  taught  under  custo- 
dial conditions  such  things  as  they  may  learn.  Aside  from 
these  there  are  a  number  of  backward  children  in  every  school, 
who  should  if  possible  be  provided  for  in  opportunity  classes. 
Not  alone  for  backward  children  but  for  those  of  superior 
ability  should  there  be  special  provision  in  separate  classes 
where  they  can  progress  in  educational  development  according 
to  their  capacity.  The  best  practice  would  seem  to  indicate 
the  organization  of  classes  for  superior  children  about  the 
fourth  or  fifth  grade. 

Even  where  the  school  conditions  do  not  allow  for  special 
classes  much  can  be  done  by  the  regrouping  of  pupils  in  the 
regular  classes.  The  bright  pupils  can  be  put  forward  where 
they  will  quickly  make  up  any  omissions  they  may  have  suffered 
by  skipping.  The  weaker  pupils  can  be  kept  together  to  be 
taught  by  methods  adapted  to  their  level  of  development. 

INFERIOR  RESULTS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

About  four-fifths  of  all  school  children  in  Virginia  receive 
their  education  in  non-city  schools  and  about  44  per  cent,  are 
enrolled  in  one-room  or  two-room  schools.  For  that  reason 
the  character  of  the  instruction  provided  and  the  results  of 
that  instruction  are  of  special  importance. 

Ail  the  evidence  from  the  tests  given  indicate  that  the  work 
of  the  rural  schools,  is  of  a  very  inferior  character.  Compara- 
tive scores  are  given  in  Table  48. 

The  inferiority  of  the  small  rural  school  is  apparent  from 
the  figures  given.  In  reality  that  inferiority  is  even  greater 
since  in  all  non-city  schools  children  are  on  the  average  about 
a  year  older  than  city  children  and  in  one-room  schools  children 
are  on  the  average  about  a  year  and  one-half  older  than  city 
children  in  each  of  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school. 

In  arithmentic  the  inferiority  of  the  one-room  school  is 
perhaps  most  marked,  children  in  such  schools  being  on  the 
average  one  grade  behind  children  in  the  larger  non-city  schools 
and  one  and  one-half  grades  behind  children  in  the  city  schools. 

NEGRO  SCHOOLS 

As  in  the  case  of  schools  for  white  pupils  effort  was  made  to 
measure  the  achievements  of  pupils  in  various  types  of  schools 


130 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


for  colored  pupils.  One-room  rural  schools,  graded  rural  schools, 
and  city  schools  for  colored  children  were  examined  with  the 
full  set  of  tests. 

Table  48 

Comparing  achievement  in  rural  and  city  schools    (white) 

(Median  scores) 


Rural  Schools 

City 

SUBJECT 

One-room 

Four-room 
or  more 

Schools 

Grade  III Addition 

6.8 

61.9 

3.9 

8.8 

8.3 

71.8 

4.3 

9.3 

9  4 

Spelling 

69  6 

Reading 

4  9 

9.5 

Grade  IV Addition 

8.4 

54.1 

5.0 

9.4 

11.1 

68.1 
4.9 
9.5 

12  4 

Spelling 

63  8 

Reading 

5  1 

9.4 

Grade  V Addition 

11.2 

56.8 

5.4 

10.0 

12.7 

61.5 

5.6 

10.0 

14  4 

Spelling 

68  3 

Reading 

5  6 

Handwriting 

10.2 

Grade  VI Addition 

11.3 

54.6 

6.3 

9.9 

13.9 

62  6 

6.3 

10.5 

15  2 

Spelling 

69  5 

Reading 

7  1 

Handwriting 

9.8 

Grade  VII Addition 

13.6 
52.6 

15.2 

58.7 

6.9 

10.0 

15  9 

Spelling 

63.1 

Reading 

7  3 

Handwriting. 

10.4 

11.5 

Unfortunately  no  comparative  scores  in  any  of  those  tests 
are  available  for  negroes  outside  of  Virginia  and  the  only  com- 
parison possible  is  that  with  the  scores  made  by  white  children 
in  Virginia  and  elsewhere.  The  scores  made  are  presented  in 
Table  49  and  comparison  made  with  the  scores  of  white  children. 


Results  of  Instruction  Measured 


131 


Table  49 


Showing  median  scores  for  colored  children 
those  for  white  children 

compared 

with 

Rural  Schools 

City  Schools 

SUBJECT 

Colored 

White 

Colored        White 

Grade  III Addition 

Spelling 

Reading 

Handwriting. 

8.3 

61.5 

4.1 

8.7 

8.2 

61.9 

4.1 

8.8 

7.8 

62.4 

3.1 

9.6 

9.4 

69.6 
4.9 
9.5 

Grade  IV Addition 

Spelling 

Reading 

Handwriting. 

10.7 

58.2 

5.1 

9.0 

10.3 

54.1 

4.9 

9.4 

12.5 

56.2 

5.1 

10.3 

12.0 

63.8 

5.1 

9.4 

Grade  V Addition 

Spelling 

Reading 

Handwriting. 

11.3 

50.4 

5.5 

9.6 

12.7 

56.8 

5.4 

10.0 

14.1 

63.5 

5.5 

11.2 

14.1 

68.3 

5.6 

10.2 

Spelling 

Reading 

Handwriting. 

13.5 

53.9 

6.4 

10.1 

13.9 

54.6 

6.2 

9.9 

14.6 

59.5 

6.7 

10.8 

15.4 

69.5 

7.1 

9.8 

Grade  VII. ..  .Addition 

Spelling 

14.7 

15.1 

52.6 

6.9 

10.4 

14.6 

62.9 

6.8 

12.3 

16  0 
63.1 

Reading 

Handwriting. 

6.5 

7.3 
11.5 

An  examination  of  the  table  shows  that  the  apparent  dif- 
ferences are  not  very  great  between  the  achievements  of 
colored  children  and  those  of  white  children.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  in  almost  every  grade  considered  colored 
pupils  are  on  the  average  a  year  or  more  older  and  have  attended 
school  on  the  average  a  year  longer  than  the  white  pupils. 
(See  chapter  IV.) 


132  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

CAUSES  OF  POOR  WORK 

MaDifold  causes  operate  to  produce  the  results  shown  in 
this  chapter.  While  thorough  analysis  of  them  will  not  be 
attempted  here,  attention  may  be  called  to  certain  salient 
conditions  which  should  be  overcome  in  the  interest  of  an 
improved  school  product.  Most  of  these  have  received  extended 
discussion  elsewhere  in  this  report.  Most  of  what  is  here  said 
applies  primarily  to  the  rural  schools  where  improvement  is 
most  obviously  needed.  Outstanding  among  all  the  probable 
causes  of  poor  work  may  be  mentioned  (a)  the  irregular  entrance 
of  pupils  into  school  and  their  irregular  attendance  thereafter, 
conditions  which  lead  to  non-promotion,  excessive  overageness 
and  elimination  from  school  before  the  completion  of  the 
elementary  course;  (b)  the  short  school  term  which  prevails  in 
many  districts;  (c)  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  well 
trained  teachers;  (d)  the  large  number  of  one-room  schools; 
(e)  the  absence  of  uniform  standards  of  achievement  for  the 
fundamental  subjects  in  the  elementary  grades;  (f)  the  inade- 
quacy of  methods  of  classifying  children  in  school;  (g)  the 
dearth  of  special  classes  for  unusual  children;  (h)  the  inadequacy 
of  supervision.  Lying  back  of  these  causes  is  the  inadequate 
financial  support  which  the  schools  receive. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Most  of  the  recommendations  to  be  made  here  are  made  else- 
where in  this  report  on  the  basis  of  other  data  than  that  of 
tests  and  measurements.  Their  repetition  here  merely  brings 
them  into  relation  to  the  test  results.  Chief  among  the  neces- 
sary changes  are  (a)  the  passage  of  an  effective  compulsory 
education  law;  (b)  the  lengthening  of  the  school  term  to  a  one 
hundred  eighty  day  minimum;  (c)  improvement  in  the 
qualifications  of  teachers;  (d)  the  increase  of  supervision,  par- 
ticularly of  the  rural  schools;  (e)  a  reduction  of  the  one-room 
schools  wherever  possible  in  favor  of  consolidation;  (f)  the 
restriction  of  one-room  schools  to  five  grades;  (g)  improve- 
ment in  the  classification  of  children;  (h)  the  employment  of 
standardized  educational  and  mental  tests  in  the  classification 
of  children;  (i)  the  organization  of  special  classes  for  backward 
and  superior  children;  (j)  the  creation  in  the  State  Department 
of  a  bureau  of  educational  investigation. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  TEACHING  FORCE  IN  VIRGINIA 

IT  requires  no  argument  to  show  that  education  is  fundamen- 
tally determined  by  the  character  of  the  teachers  charged 
with  the  responsibility  of  providing  instruction.  In  this  chap- 
ter an  attempt  is  made  to  analyze  the  character  of  the  teaching 
force  in  Virginia,  the  following  important  questions  being  con- 
sidered, (i)  Are  teachers  provided  in  sufficient  number?  (ii) 
Is  the  teaching  force  sufficiently  stable  to  ensure  effective 
instruction?  (iii)  Are  the  teachers  of  Virginia  properly  educated 
and  trained?  (iv)  Is  the  pay  of  teachers  high  enough  to  attract 
and  retain  capable  men  and  women?  (v)  How  may  neces- 
sary improvements  be  brought  about? 

i. — ARE  TEACHERS  PROVIDED  IN  SUFFICIENT  NUMBER? 

The  first  question  calling  for  answer  in  an  analysis  of  the 
teaching  force  of  public  schools  in  Virginia  is  this :  Are  enough 
teachers  provided  to  furnish  instruction  to  the  children  of  the 
State?  For  the  present,  considering  teacher  adequacy  from  a 
quantitative  viewpoint  only,  and  deferring  the  consideration  of 
quality,  we  find  the  situation  to  be  as  shown  below. 

In  Table  50  are  presented  figures  showing  the  number  of 
pupils  to  each  teacher  in  Virginia  for  various  years  during  the 
last  decade.  Those  figures  show  that  on  the  average  there  are 
about  thirty-three  white  pupils  enrolled  for  each  white  teacher 
employed,  and  about  forty-eight  colored  pupils  enrolled  for 
each  colored  teacher  employed,  or  about  twenty-three  white 
pupils  in  average  daily  attendance  for  each  white  teacher 
employed,  and  about  thirty  colored  pupils  in  average  daily 
attendance  for  each  colored  teacher  employed.  For  the  State  as 
a  whole  and  on  the  average  apparently  the  number  of  white 
teachers  employed  is  relatively  satisfactory,  but  the  number 
of  colored  teachers  is  inadequate  and  would  be  impossibly 
inadequate  if  attendance  were  brought  up  to  any  reasonable 
standard. 


134  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

It  is  obvious  that  in  measuring  teacher  adequacy  good  aver- 
ages may  easily  conceal  a  very  bad  situation.  Thus  twenty 
schools,  ten  of  which  had  each  one  teacher  for  every  ten  pupils, 
and  ten  of  which  had  each  forty  pupils  for  each  teacher,  would 
show  an  average  of  twenty-five  pupils  for  each  teacher,  though 
the  ratio  of  teachers  and  pupils  in  each  school  would  be  very 
undesirable.  Now  very  many  schools  in  Virginia  indicate  just 
such  extremes,  and,  therefore,  the  county- wide  ratios  (for  1917- 
18)  shown  in  Table  52  are  very  significant.  That  table  shows 
that  in  twenty-three  counties  of  the  State  the  number  of  white 
pupils  in  average  daily  attendance  to  each  white  teacher  is  less 
than  fifteen,  while  in  other  counties  the  ratio  increases  until  at 
the  other  extreme  one  county  has  forty-nine  white  pupils  in 
average  daily  attendance  per  teacher  employed.  In  four  coun- 
ties there  are  from  forty-one  to  forty-five  colored  pupils  in 
average  daily  attendance  for  each  teacher  employed,  and  one 
county  caps  the  climax  by  having  sixty-three  colored  pupils  in 
average  daily  attendance  for  each  colored  teacher  employed  in 
the  county. 

In  individual  schools  the  number  of  pupils  under  the  charge 
of  one  teacher  varies  widely — and  necessarily  so.  There  is  no 
justification,  however,  for  county- wide  extremes  indicated  above 
or  for  the  extremes  indicated  by  the  figures  in  Table  53,  which 
show  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  in  738  non-city  schools 
of  different  types  in  1917-18.  Those  figures  show  that  about 
eighteen  per  cent  of  the  white  schools  and  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
colored  schools  investigated  were  above  the  dead  line  (forty 
pupils  to  a  teacher)  in  regard  to  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
under  one  teacher,  and  that  about  seven  per  cent  of  the  white 
schools  and  twenty-three  per  cent  of  the  colored  schools  were 
above  the  dead  line  (thirty  pupils  to  a  teacher)  as  measured  by 
the  number  of  pupils  in  average  daily  attendance.1  The  figures 
also  show  that  absurdly  small  classes  are  not  confined  to  one- 
room  schools,  nor  impossibly  large  classes  to  the  larger  schools. 
In  many  small  town  schools,  where  all  grades  are  taught  in  the 
same  building,  the  teacher  of  the  lower  grades  frequently  has 
three  or  four  times  as  many  pupils  as  all  high  school  teachers. 

1  In  a  one-room  colored  school  visited  were  found  110  pupils  enrolled 
and  85  pupils  present  in  a  room  17x23  feet. 


Teaching  Force  135 

It  is  as  well  here,  perhaps,  as  anywhere  to  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  male  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Virginia 
as  elsewhere  are  decreasing  in  numbers  and  proportions  almost 
to  the  point  of  disappearance.  In  Table  54  are  presented  figures 
showing  that  the  proportion  of  male  teachers  in  public  schools 
of  all  types  and  for  the  entire  State  of  Virginia  has  decreased 
from  about  two-thirds  (64  per  cent  for  whites  and  67  per  cent 
for  negroes)  in  1871  to  about  one-eighth  (12  per  cent  for  whites, 
and  14  per  cent  for  negroes)  in  1918.  Among  1,592  white 
teachers  in  798  county  schools  intensively  investigated  only 
143  men  teachers  (9  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  white 
teachers)  were  found,  and  among  366  colored  teachers  in  272 
county  schools  only  53  men  teachers  (about  14  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  colored  teachers)  were  found.  Few  country 
children  ever  come  in  contact  with  men  teachers. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the  relative  qualities  of  men 
and  women  teachers,  and  in  the  presentation  of  the  above  facts 
there  is  no  intent  to  raise  the  question.  The  facts  presented 
for  Virginia  are  not  worse  than  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
country — in  fact  the  proportion  of  men  teachers  is  larger  in 
the  South  than  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  Nevertheless,  it 
is  for  the  people  of  Virginia  to  determine  whether  or  not  they 
wish  men  teachers  to  disappear  from  the  schools  of  the  State. 
The  reason  for  the  present  situation  is,  of  course,  primarily,  a 
matter  of  the  low  salaries  paid. 

Summarizing  the  matter  of  the  supply  of  teachers  (numeri- 
cally considered)  we  may  say  that  on  the  average  the  number 
of  teachers  is  in  general  fairly  satisfactory  for  white  schools, 
but  very  unsatisfacory  for  colored  schools.  Averages,  however, 
are  very  misleading  in  this  connection,  and  it  is  not  at  all 
unusual  to  find  excessively  small  classes  and  excessively  large 
classes.  For  the  waste  which  comes  through  numerous  small 
schools  the  remedy  lies  in  many  cases  in  more  and  better  school 
consolidation.  When  excessively  large  classes  jeopardize  or 
destroy  efficient  instruction,  the  remedy  must  be  found  in  an 
increase  of  the  teaching  staff.  No  teacher  should  ever  be 
expected  to  care  for  more  than  forty  pupils  enrolled,  or  for  more 
than  thirty  pupils  in  average  daily  attendance.  A  reasonable 
standard  is  about  twenty-five  pupils  to  a  teacher. 


136  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

ii. — IS  THE  TEACHING  FORCE  STABLE? 

Industrial  and  business  concerns  have  recently  come  to  real- 
ize that  the  size  of  the  "labor  turnover"  (i.e.,  the  number  of 
new  workers  who  must  be  engaged,  in  many  cases  only  to  be 
replaced  in  a  short  time)  is  one  of  the  most  serious  factors 
limiting  the  efficiency  of  their  business  and  imperilling  their 
dividends.  With  respect  to  the  "teacher  turnover"  public 
school  administration  shares  this  problem  with  other  enterprises 
and  the  same  business  principles  apply  here  as  in  the  industrial 
or  commercial  fields.  Where  teachers  change  from  year  to 
year  efficiency  can  no  more  be  secured  than  where  important 
employees  in  an  industry  or  business  change  frequently.  To 
the  general  consideration  must  be  added  the  fact  that  no  small 
part  of  the  State's  investment  in  the  training  of  teachers  is 
wasted  (as  far  as  the  schools  are  concerned)  when  teachers 
receive  a  relatively  expensive  training  only  to  teach  for  a  year 
or  two.1 

What  is  the  "teacher  turnover"  in  the  schools  of  Virginia? 

Unfortunately  this  question  cannot  be  answered  as  definitely 
as  the  survey  staff  would  desire,  since  the  survey  was  made 
during  an  "off  year"  when  the  usual  instability  of  the  teaching 
force  of  the  State  was  exaggerated  by  the  abnormal  industrial 
and  commercial  conditions,  due  to  war.  Investigation  showed 
that  for  the  school  year  1918-19  the  situation  was  as  indicated 
by  the  figures  in  Table  55.    Those  figures  show  that: 

(1).  In  non-city  white  schools  of  all  types  between  one- 
fifth  and  one-quarter  of  the  teachers  had  had  no  teaching 
experience  before  this  year,  and  one-sixth  had  had  only  one 
year  of  previous  experience.  In  colored  schools  of  the  same 
classes  about  one-fifth  had  had  no  experience,  and  about  one- 
ninth  had  had  only  one  year  of  experience  in  teaching  before 
this  year.  For  white  teachers  the  median  number  of  years 
experience  prior  to  this  year  was  1.4  years,  for  colored  teachers 
it  was  four  years. 

(2).  In  one-room  schools  more  than  one-third  of  the  white 
teachers  had  had  no  experience  before  this  year,  and  fifteen 

1  Emphasis  here  merely  on  the  business  aspect  of  the  situation 
should  not  obscure  the  great  importance  of  other  aspects  which  are 
involved. 


Teaching  Force  137 

per  cent  had  had  only  one  year's  experience.  In  schools  of 
this  class  between  one-fifth  and  one-quarter  of  the  colored 
teachers  had  had  no  experience  before  this  year,  and  one- 
ninth  had  had  only  one  year's  experience  before  this  year.  For 
white  teachers  in  one-room  schools  the  median  years  experience 
before  this  year  was  less  than  one  year.  For  colored  teachers 
in  schools  of  that  class  the  median  was  three  and  one-half  years. 

(3).  In  non-city  high  schools  (white  only  considered  here) 
the  teaching  force  was  fairly  stable,  the  median  years  of  experi- 
ence before  this  year  being  over  four  and  one-half  years. 

It  is  true  that  these  figures  represent  abnormal  conditions. 
But  it  is  also  true  that  the  normal  condition  of  the  teaching 
force  of  Virginia  is  one  of  great  instability.  In  school  after 
school  in  the  rural  districts  visited  by  members  of  the  survey 
staff  it  was  reported  that  the  same  teacher  rarely  remained 
more  than  one  year  in  the  school  and  it  is  not  without  significance 
that  the  State  Department  issues  about  six  thousand  certifi- 
cates1 annually  for  a  school  system  having  in  all  less  than  four- 
teen thousand  teachers.  The  certificating  officer  of  the  State 
Department  estimates  the  number  of  new  teachers  entering 
the  State  system  at  between  twenty-five  and  thirty-five  hun- 
dred teachers  per  year. 

The  evils  of  a  markedly  unstable  teaching  force  or  one  requir- 
ing a  large  proportion  of  new  teachers  each  year  are  numerous : 
(a)  the  education  of  children  suffers  greatly  under  the  instruc- 
tion of  new  and  inexperienced  teachers;  (b)  proper  grading  in 
the  schools  is  seriously  handicapped  where  each  new  teacher 
must  learn  the  children  anew;  (c)  the  identification  of  the 
teacher  with  community  life  is  impossible  and,  therefore,  her 
efficiency  is  greatly  curtailed;  (d)  the  general  status  of  education 
must  always  remain  at  a  relatively  low  level  when  inexperi- 
enced teachers  merely  replace  other  inexperienced  teachers; 
(e)  the  development  of  a  professional  spirit  and  of  an  esprit 
de  corps  is  impossible;  (f)  the  work  of  the  teacher-training 
institutions  is  seriously  handicapped  and  to  some  extent  wasted 
in  turning  out  teachers  who  teach  for  one,  two,  or  three  years 


1  Including  extensions,  renewals,  and  higher  grade  certificates 
issued  in  place  of  lower  grade  certificates  on  the  basis  of  improved 
qualifications. 


138  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

and  then  withdraw  from  the  profession;  (h)  certificating  stand- 
ards are  always  kept  low  through  the  necessity  of  providing 
a  group  of  teachers  numerically  adequate  for  the  demand. 
There  is  no  hope  of  supplying  with  proper  training  the  over- 
large  number  of  new  teachers  required  annually  under  present 
conditions. 

Why  do  not  teachers  remain  in  the  profession?  The  number 
and  proportion  of  those  leaving  is  large  because  (a)  the  pay  of 
teachers  is  so  low  that  the  profession  cannot  compete  for 
workers  with  relatively  low-grade  occupations  requiring  little 
or  no  training  (see  below  in  this  chapter);  (b)  the  status  of  the 
teacher  is  not  well  recognized  in  general:  (c)  living  conditions 
are  frequently  unsatisfactory  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  and 
(d)  the  great  majority  of  teachers  being  women  many  of  them 
marry  and  then  cease  to  teach.  The  remedies  for  the  present 
situation,  are  (a)  raising  the  pay  of  teachers  to  a  level  sufficient 
to  retain  them,  (b)  better  recognition  by  the  community  of  the 
teachers'  work,  (c)  provision  for  better  living  conditions  in  the 
rural  districts,  (d)  a  larger  proportion  of  men  teachers,  (e) 
provisions  for  tenure  of  office. 

iii. — ARE  TEACHERS  WELL  EDUCATED  AND  WELL  TRAINED? 

Contact  with  thousands  of  teachers  in  all  parts  of  the  State 
has  convinced  members  of  the  survey  staff  that  as  a  body  the 
public-school  teachers  of  Virginia  are  intelligent  and  earnest 
men  and  women,  conscientiously  laboring  to  perform  properly 
the  tasks  in  which  they  are  engaged.  As  in  any  other  group  of 
teachers,  or  in  groups  of  people  engaged  in  any  other  business 
or  profession,  all  sorts  and  conditions  are  found,  ranging  from 
those  teachers  who  are  well  trained  and  infused  with  a  pro- 
fessional spirit  which  amounts  to  consecration,  to  those  teachers 
who  are  in  every  way  totally  unfitted  for  the  task  of  teaching. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  native  intelligence,  personal  character, 
and  earnestness,  Virginia  teachers  are  fully  on  a  par  with  the 
teachers  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Where,  then,  lies  the  cause  of  the  unsatisfactory  condition 
which  is  recognized  by  the  teachers  and  citizens  of  Virginia 
and  is  obvious  to  the  most  casual  observation  of  an  outsider? 
The  cause  for  the  present  unsatisfactory  condition  is  found  in 


Teaching  Force  139 

the  fact  that  as  a  whole  the  teaching  force  of  the  schools  in 
Virginia  is  woefully  lacking  in  the  education  and  training  essen- 
tial for  good  teaching. 

Figure  6 

Showing  the  proportion  of  elementary  school  teachers  having  not  more  than 
jour  years  of  high  school  education 

See  Table  56 


Non-city  white  City  white  Non-city  colored: 

schools  schools  schools 


This  may  be  seen  from  the  figures  presented  in  Table  56  which 
for  1918-19  shows  the  numbers  and  per  cents  of  elementary 
school  teachers  who  have  received  various  amounts  of  educa- 
tion and  professional  training.  From  these  figures  it  is  seen 
that: 

(1).  In  the  non-city  elementary  schools  more  than  one-fifth 
of  the  white  teachers  and  nearly  two-fifths  of  the  colored 
teachers  have  received  an  education  which  is  only  the  equiva- 
lent of  two  years  of  high-school  education.  In  those  schools 
nearly  three-quarters  of  the  white  teachers  and  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  the  colored  teachers  have  received  an  education 
which  is  the  equivalent  of  not  more  than  a  four  year  high- 
school  education.  The  median  amount  of  education  and  train- 
ing received  by  white  teachers  in  such  schools  is  slightly  more 
than  the  equivalent  of  three  grades  of  high-school  education, 
and  the  median  amount  of  education  and  training  received  by 
colored  teachers  in  non-city  schools  is  about  the  equivalent  of 
two  and  one-half  years  of  high-school  education. 


140  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(2).  In  city  elementary  schools  more  than  one-third  of  the 
white  teachers  have  received  education  and  training  not  higher 
than  the  equivalent  of  four  grades  of  high-school  instruction, 
and  the  median  amount  of  education  received  by  such  teachers 
is  the  equivalent  of  one  year  of  college  or  normal  school.  This 
situation  is  true  of  large  cities  as  well  as  small,  though  not 
equally  applicable  to  all. 

(3).  High-school  teachers  in  large  cities  are  for  the  most 
part  college-trained  men  and  women.  In  the  smaller  cities 
their  education  and  training  on  the  whole  is  less  satisfactory. 
For  non-city  high  schools  the  figures  presented  in  Table  58 
show  the  relative  numbers  and  per  cents  of  non-city  high- 
school  teachers  in  eighteen  counties  of  Virginia  who  have  had 
various  amounts  of  education  and  professional  training.  There 
it  may  be  noted  that  the  training  of  such  teachers  is  very  far 
from  satisfactory,  the  median  number  of  years  of  education 
received  being  less  than  two  years  beyond  the  high  school,  and 
nearly  fifteen  per  cent  having  received  an  education  no  higher 
than  the  older  pupils  of  the  schools  in  which  they  teach. 

It  is  true  that  the  figures  presented  in  Tables  56  and  58  are 
those  for  the  school  year  1918-19  when  conditions  were  very 
unsettled  and  the  supply  of  teachers  of  any  sort  was  very  much 
curtailed  by  social  and  economic  conditions.  It  is  also  true, 
however,  that  figures  provided  by  the  State  Department  for 
1916-17  do  not  indicate  a  situation  noticeably  different.  Thus 
the  figures  presented  in  Table  57  show  that  less  than  one-half 
of  the  teachers  of  the  State  in  1916-17  had  had  an  education 
above  that  represented  by  the  high  school.1  The  general  level 
of  experience  may  have  been  lower  in  1918-19,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  level  of  education  and  training  was  materially 
changed. 

The  qualifications  of  Virginia  teachers  may  also  be  seen  from 
the  certificates  which  they  hold.  Figures  presented  in  Table  72 
show  that  in  1918-19  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  white  teachers, 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  colored  teachers,  and  more  than 
one-half  of  all  teachers  in  the  State  are  entitled  to  hold  only 

1  An  examination  of  similar  figures  for  1913-14,  1914-15,  1915-16 
shows  that  1916-17  was  not  a  typical  year.  See  Report  of  the  (Virginia) 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  1915-16,  page  84. 


Teaching  Force  141 

First  Grade  Certificates,  Second  Grade  Certificates,  or  Local 
Permits.  This  means  that  less  than  one-half  of  the  teachers 
of  Virginia  have  received  at  best  not  more  than  a  high-school 
education .  The y  also  show  that  more.than  one-half  of  the  teachers 
in  the  State  are  without  any  professional  training,  except  in  some 
cases  what  they  may  have  received  in  summer  institutes  or 
summer  schools. 

Figures  presented  in  Tables  73  and  74  show  that  the  situa- 
tion was  not  appreciably  different  in  1917-18.  In  that  year  one 
county  (Stafford)  did  not  have  a  single  teacher  entitled  to  hold 
a  certificate  above  the  "First  Grade,"  and  in  all,  seventeen 
counties  in  the  State  had  each  less  than  one-fifth  of  its  teachers 
entitled  to  certificates  higher  than  First  Grade. 

iv. — IS  THE  PAY  OF  TEACHERS  HIGH  ENOUGH  TO  ATTRACT 
AND  RETAIN  CAPABLE  MEN  AND  WOMEN? 

The  laws  of  wages  and  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand  operate 
just  as  surely  and  just  as  effectively  in  the  case  of  school  teachers 
as  in  the  case  of  any  other  body  of  workers.  The  problem  of  the 
teacher's  pay  cannot  be  solved  on  the  basis  of  what  people 
think  teachers  deserve,  or  on  the  basis  of  what  teachers  believe 
that  their  services  are  worth.  In  the  long  run  and  for  the  State 
as  a  whole  the  problem  is  fundamentally  an  economic  problem 
and  must  be  solved  by  recognized  economic  principles.  In 
other  words,  the  pay  of  teachers  is  a  plain  business  proposition. 
On  the  one  hand  the  people  of  the  State  desire  to  purchase  cer- 
tain skilled  service;  on  the  other  hand  certain  men  and  women 
have  that  skilled  service  for  sale  or  are  willing  to  equip  them- 
selves with  the  requisite  skill  if  the  returns  therefrom  are  large 
enough  to  warrant  the  necessary  effort. 

Are  the  salaries  paid  to  school  teachers  in  Virginia  high 
enough  to  secure  capable  teachers  and  to  retain  them? 

In  Table  59  are  presented  figures  showing  the  average  annual 
salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  Virginia  for  the  past  six  years.  The 
figures  show  that  the  average  annual  salary  paid  to  white 
teachers  is  approximately  S351  for  non-city  schools,  and  $658 
for  city  schools,  while  the  average  annual  salary  paid  to  colored 
teachers  is  approximately  SI 75  for  non-city  schools,  and  §391 
for  city  schools. 


142  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  latest  available  returns  (1915-16)  permitting  comparison 
indicate  that  Virginia  occupies  a  position  about  seventh  from 
the  bottom  of  the  list  of  States  with  respect  to  the  average 
monthly  or  yearly  salaries  paid  its  teachers,  the  average  annual 
salary  paid  in  Virginia  being  less  than  half  that  paid  in  the 
North  Atlantic  or  Western  States.    (Cf.  Table  60.) 

Figure  7 

Showing  for  1915-16  (latest  comparative  figures  available)  a  comparison 
of  the  average  annual  salaries  for  teachers  in  Virginia  and  elsewhere 

See  Table  60 


South  Atlantic  State?  VyyZtfW/ZvyyA  U2  39 

413.58 


South  Central  State? 

Mc_—    w///////////////mm 

563.08 


United  States 


Nowhere,  however,  are  averages  more  deceptive  measures 
of  a  central  tendency  than  in  the  case  of  salaries,  where  one 
large  salary  paid  to  a  principal  or  teacher  may  effect  two  or 
more  very  low  salaries  paid.  In  Table  61  are  presented  figures 
showing  for  1917-18  the  number  of  counties  in  Virginia  having 
various  average  records  for  the  annual  salaries  of  teachers. 
These  figures  show  that:  (a)  the  median  averages  for  non-city 
schools  were  $348.76  for  white  teachers  and  $177.48  for  colored 
teachers;  (b)  county  averages  vary  for  white  teachers'  salaries 
all  the  way  from  $201-$225  to  $576-$600,and  for  colored  teachers' 
salaries  all  the  way  from  under  $100to$401-$425;  (c)  more  than 
one-quarter  of  the  counties  have  average  records  of  less  than 
$300  for  the  annual  salaries  of  white  teachers  and  of  less  than 
$150  for  the  annual  salaries  of  colored  teachers. 

For  individual  teachers  the  extremes  of  salary  are  shown  in 
Table  62  for  elementary  schools,  and  in  Table  63  for  high  schools 


Teaching  Force  143 

of  Virginia  in  1918-19.  Is  it  strange  that  district  boards  and 
superintendents  found  difficulty  in  securing  and  retaining 
teachers  when  the  annual  salaries  paid  were  under  $250  for  one- 
eighth  of  the  white  teachers,  and  one-half  of  the  colored  teachers 
in  non-city  elementary  schools? 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  for  the  State  as  a  whole  Virginia 
is  not  securing  and  retaining  capable,  skilled  teachers.  There 
can  also  be  no  doubt  that  the  principal  reason  for  present  con- 
ditions is  found  in  the  low  wages  paid  to  teachers.  The  fact 
is  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  maintaining  even  a  reasonably 
satisfactory  system  of  public  schools  in  the  State  of  Virginia 
as  long  as  the  wages  of  teachers  on  the  average  are  lower  than 
those  paid  to  unskilled  labor. 

V. — HOW  MAY  NECESSARY  IMPROVEMENTS  BE  BROUGHT  ABOUT? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  from  a  professional  viewpoint 
and  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  the  teaching  force  in  the  public 
schools  of  Virginia  is  at  a  very  low  level — a  level  so  low  that 
there  is  no  hope  of  effective  education  in  the  State  unless  and 
until  conditions  are  very  decidedly  improved. 

How  can  these  conditions  be  improved?  How  can  Virginia 
attract  and  retain  a  sufficient  number  of  adequately  educated 
and  properly  trained  teachers?  There  is  but  one  answer  to  these 
questions — by  making  the  rewards  for  such  service  sufficient. 

How  can  these  rewards  be  made  sufficient?  Several  means 
have  been  employed  in  other  States:  (1)  increasing  the  pay  of 
teachers;  (2)  encouraging  stay  in  the  profession  by  provision 
for  teachers'pensions;  (3)  encouraging  stay  in  the  profession  by 
provision  for  tenure  of  position  in  the  case  of  experienced  and 
qualified  teachers;  (4)  making  more  satisfactory  the  conditions 
of  teachers  in  rural  districts.  The  relation  of  teacher  certifica- 
tion and  teacher  training  to  the  problems  of  improving  the 
teaching  force  are  considered  in  the  next  chapters. 

(1).  Increasing  the  Pay  of  Teachers:  The  laws  of  supply 
and  demand,  and  the  laws  of  occupational  competition  are  not 
suspended  in  the  case  of  teachers  in  Virginia.  The  State  gets 
and  will  continue  to  get  exactly  what  it  pays  for — no  more  and 
no  less  in  the  long  run.    At  present  it  is  receiving  very  inferior 


144  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

service  for  what  very  inferior  service  costs.  It  must  receive  very- 
much  better  service  and  it  must  pay  what  better  service  costs. 

The  teacher's  pay  must  be  raised  very  materially.  What 
should  be  the  amount?  To  this  question  no  single  answer  can 
be  given,  since  the  economic  conditions  of  living  and  occupa- 
tional competition  vary  widely  for  men  and  women,  for  different 
types  of  teaching,  for  whites  and  negroes,  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  and  in  communities  of  different  types,  At  present 
teachers  receive  an  annual  income  (or  monthly  income)  from 
their  profession  far  lower  than  workers  in  other  professions 
demanding  special  training,  and  the  average  returns  from 
teaching  in  Virginia  are  less  than  from  most  forms  of  unskilled 
labor.  The  amount  of  increase  in  teachers'  pay  must  be  suffi- 
cient to  raise  it  to  the  level  of  pay  in  those  occupations  demand- 
ing an  equivalent  amount  of  training  and  an  equivalent  amount 
of  expenditure  for  that  training.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey 
staff,  properly  trained  and  adequately  educated  teachers  can- 
not be  provided  in  Virginia  unless  the  minimum  salary  for  well- 
experienced  teachers  holding  the  highest  certificate  approxi- 
mates one  thousand  dollars  per  annum,  and  unless  the  mini- 
mum salary  of  any  full-time  teacher  employed  approximates 
$500  per  annum. 

Undoubtedly  many  teachers  in  Virginia  at  the  present  time 
are  not  worth  $500.  The  surest  way  to  eliminate  such  teachers, 
however,  is  to  set  the  pay  of  teachers  at  such  a  minimum  mark 
that  capable  teachers  will  be  attracted  and  drive  out  the  infe- 
rior teachers. 

Since  1913,  according  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statis- 
tics,1 the  cost  of  food  has  increased  one  hundred  per  cent,  the 
cost  of  clothing  one  hundred  fourteen  per  cent  and  all  commo- 
dities one  hundred  per  cent.  The  average  annual  salary  of 
teachers  in  Virginia  was  wretchedly  low — less  than  a  living 
wage — in  1913.  Since  then  it  has  been  increased  less  than 
thirty  per  cent,  so  that  the  discrepancy  between  the  teacher's 
pay  and  a  living  wage  has  been  increased  rather  than  decreased 
within  the  past  five  or  six  years,  salary  increases  having  fallen 
far  behind  increases  in  the  cost  of  living. 

1  Monthly  Labor  Review,  United  States  Department  of  Labor, 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  May  1919,  page  143. 


Teaching  Force  145 

(£).  Teachers'  Pensions:  At  present  legal  provision  is  made 
in  Virginia  for  teachers'  pensions  payable  for  physical  or  men- 
tal (liability  after  twenty  years  of  service,  or,  if  the  teacher  is 
placed  on  the  retired  list  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  after 
thirty  years  of  service  and  after  reaching  the  age  of  fifty  eight 
for  men  or  fifty  for  women.  The  fund  is  derived  from  one 
per  cent  compulsory  contributions  from  each  teacher  employed, 
from  annual  appropiations  by  the  State,1  and  from  legacies, 
bequests,  etc.  The  pension  paid  is  one  half  of  the  average 
annual  salary  received  by  the  retired  teacher  during  the  last 
five  years  of  service  as  a  teacher  in  the  State,  with  a  maximum 
of  five  hundred  dollars. 

In  1917-18,  430  retired  teachers  were  recipients  of  pensions, 
the  total  amount  paid  in  pensions  that  year  being  $56,805.73, 
or  an  average  annual  payment  of  SI 32. 11  per  retired  teacher.2 
With  a  State-wide  average  annual  salary  of  less  than  $400  it  is 
clear  that  the  pension  paid  to  retired  teachers  (most  of  which 
came  from  teachers  contributions)  cannot  be  a  very  significant 
item  attracting  capable  teachers.  With  salaries  approaching 
an  adequate  amount,  however,  the  pension  law,  if  reconstructed 
along  the  lines  suggested  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  might 
very  well  prove  a  really  effective  instrument  assisting  in  the 
development  of  a  better  trained  and  more  stable  teaching  force. 

It  should  be  recognized  that  teachers'  pensions  are  not  based 
on  philanthropy  or  charity.  Neither  are  they  bonuses.  When 
given  for  disability  they  partake  of  the  nature  of  insurance  for 
the  benefit  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  State.  When  granted  for 
retirement,  teachers'  pensions  in  the  long  run  are  nothing  more 
and  nothing  less  than  partially  deferred  salaries,  even  if  the 
entire  amount  of  the  pension  were  paid  out  of  public  funds  and 
there  were  no  direct  contributions  by  the  teachers  themselves. 

(3).  Improving  Conditions  for  Teachers  in  Rural  Districts: 
Several  factors  tend  to  discourage  young  men  and  women  from 
entering  the  service  in  rural  schools:  (a)  the  majority  of  rural 
schools  are  of  the  one-teacher  type,  demanding  an  amount  of 


1    In  1918-19  the  State  appropriation  was  $10,000. 
"*    For  sixty-three  teachers  retired  on  pension  in  1917-18  the  median 
annual  pension  was  $134.80. 


146  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

labor  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  wages  paid;  (b)  the  pay  is 
low  and  the  school  term  short;  (c)  the  school  buildings  and 
equipment  frequently  are  very  poor;  (d)  it  is  frequently  very 
difficult  and  sometimes  all  but  impossible  to  secure  satisfactory 
living  conditions. 

Remedies  for  present  conditions  may  be  found  in :  (a)  reduc- 
tion through  consolidation  of  the  larger  number  of  one-teacher 
schools  (See  chapter  XV) ;  (b)  increase  of  pay  and  extension  of 
the  school  term  (See  chapter  II) ;  (c)  the  improvement  of  school 
buildings  and  equipment  (See  chapter  XVII) ;  (d)  the  mainte- 
nance of  teachers'  cottages  in  rural  districts. 

With  the  exception  of  teachers'  cottages  the  improvements 
mentioned  are  considered  elsewhere  in  this  report.  Teachers' 
cottages  require  consideration  here. 

Until  living  conditions  are  improved  for  teachers  in  many 
rural  districts,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  capable  men  and 
women  will  go  to  those  districts  to  teach  or  remain  there.  At 
present  in  many  districts  there  is  no  possibility  of  teachers  secur- 
ing anything  like  satisfactory  living  conditions.  In  -some  cases 
they  must  live  at  a  great  distance  from  the  school  in  which  they 
teach.  In  other  cases  they  are  compelled  to  live  in  homes 
already  overcrowded,  and  where  they  would  never  live  if  there 
were  any  alternative.  In  still  other  cases  teachers  have  been 
forced  to  give  up  their  positions  either  because  they  could  find 
no  place  at  all  to  live,  or  because  such  places  as  were  available 
were  intolerable. 

In  other  States  the  only  solution  found  has  been  the  building 
of  teachers'  cottages  and  a  few  (18  or  20  up  to  1918)  have  been 
built  in  Virginia.  An  extension  of  the  policy  already  begun 
should  do  much  to  attract  and  retain  capable  teachers  in  rural 
districts  which  at  present  cannot  provide  satisfactory  living 
conditions  for  them. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  building  and  maintenance  of 
teachers'  cottages  need  add  little  or  nothing  to  the  cost  of  main- 
taining schools  in  any  district.  The  rent  is,  of  course,  reckoned 
in  the  teachers'  remuneration.  As  a  renting  proposition  teachers 
cottages  are  in  a  preferred  class  from  an  investment  viewpoint, 
since  occupancy  is  assured  and  the  payment  of  rent  guaranteed. 


Teaching  Force  147 

(4).  Tenure  of  Office:  Nothing  is  more  disruptive  of  school 
organization  and  educational  development  than  continual 
change  in  the  teaching  force.  For  that  reason  many  States  have 
made  some  provision  for  tenure  of  office  for  the  teacher.  In 
some  States  that  provision  has  taken  the  form  of  a  law  guaran- 
teeing retention  in  office  after  a  specified  period  of  service. 
In  other  States  retention  in  office  has  been  encouraged  by  pro- 
vision for  a  salary  bonus  to  teachers  remaining  more  than  one 
year  in  the  same  school. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  State  of  Virginia 
should  pass  a  law  guaranteeing  tenure  of  office,  during  good 
behavior,  to  every  teacher  holding  a  high-grade  professional 
certificate  who  has  performed  satisfactory  service  for  at  least 
three  years  in  the  same  school. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  steps  be  taken  at  once  to  increase  the  pay  of  teachers. 
The  survey  staff  does  not  believe  that  any  fixed  salary  schedule 
can  be  set  for  the  State  as  a  whole.  It  recommends,  however, 
that  the  minimum  annual  salary  for  any  teacher  engaged  in 
full-time  service  be  set  at  not  less  than  five  hundred  dollars, 
and  a  standard  for  the  minimum  annual  salary  of  any  teacher 
holding  the  highest  grade  certificate  for  his  class  of  service  and 
having  had  at  least  three  years  of  experience  be  set  at  not  less 
than  one  thousand  dollars. 

2.  That  the  present  teachers'  retirement  law  be  amended: 
(a)  so  as  to  make  retirement,  after  at  least  twenty  years  of 
service,  voluntary  at  the  age  of  sixty  or  sixty-five,  and  compul- 
sory at  the  age  of  sixty-five  or  seventy,  or  compulsory  for  disa- 
bility at  any  time  at  the  discretion  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion; (b)  so  as  to  provide  an  annual  appropiation  of  State  funds 
equal  to  the  amount  of  the  teachers'  compulsory  contributions; 
(c)  so  that  the  retiring  allowance  shall  be  determined  on  a  true 
actuarial  basis  with  reference  to  the  teachers'  contributions  and 
State  appropiations,  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  arbitrary  pro- 
portions of  the  teachers'  salary;  (d)  so  as  to  provide  for  an  equity 
clause  in  the  case  of  teachers  withdrawing  without  retirement 
allowance. 


148  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

3.  That  the  State,  through  building  loan  funds,  encourage 
rural  districts  to  establish  teachers'  cottages,  those  cottages 
to  be  rented  to  teachers  at  a  rate  not  to  exceed  four  per  cent 
of  the  cost  of  construction  plus  one  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance. 

4.  That  a  law  be  passed  guaranteeing  tenure  of  office,  unless 
dismissed  for  proven  cause,  to  every  teacher  holding  a  high- 
grade  professional  certificate  (at  present  Collegiate  Professional 
or  Normal  Professional)  who  has  performed  satisfactory  service 
for  at  least  three  years  in  the  same  school. 

Note — Recommendations  concerning  teacher  training  and  teacher 
certification  are  made  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

FOR  the  training  of  white  teachers  provision  is  made  by  the 
State  at  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  women  (Farm- 
ville,  Fredericksburg,  Harrisonburg,  and  Radford),  in  the 
Department  of  Normal  Training  at  the  College  of  William 
and  Mary  (men  and  women)  in  the  Department  of  Education 
of  the  University  of  Virginia  (men  only  in  the  regular  session), 
and  in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Education  of  the  Vir- 
ginia Polytechnic  Institute  (men  only).  Several  private  insti- 
tutions contribute  graduates  who  become  teachers.  Richmond 
maintains  a  city  normal  school.  Finally,  a  few  public  high 
schools  provide  a  normal  training  department,  subsidized  by 
the  State. 

For  the  training  of  colored  teachers  the  State  maintains  one 
institution,  the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  at 
Petersburg.  Richmond  also  maintains  a  colored  normal  school 
supported  and  controlled  by  the  City.  In  addition  an  attempt 
is  made  to  provide  some  normal  training  work  in  the  twenty- 
eight  County  Training  Schools,  some  of  which  receive  State 
subsidies.  Since  these  are  practically  two-year  high  schools, 
the  normal  training  is  perforce  very  limited.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  the  great  majority  of  colored  teachers  are  without  any 
professional  training,  and  the  supply  of  trained  teachers  from 
the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  and  from  privately 
endowed  institutions  is  far  below  the  demand. 

i. — THE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  WHITE  WOMEN 

The  principal  sources  of  supply  for  white  teachers  are  the 
four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women  at  Farmville,  Freder- 
icksburg, Harrisonburg,  and  Radford. 

(a).  Control:  Each  of  these  normal  schools  was  formerly 
under  the  control  and  supervision  of  a  separate  Board.  In  1916 
all  four  were  placed  under  the  control  and  supervision  of  a 


150  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

single  State  Normal  School  Board.  This  was  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  The  next  step  is  to  place  them  all  under  the 
control  and  supervision  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  as 
integral  parts  of  the  State  System  of  Public  Education. 

It  is  not  wise  policy  to  have  two  separate  Boards,  one  con- 
trolling the  certification  and  service  of  teachers,  the  other  con- 
trolling their  training.  One  board — the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion— should  have  charge  of  the  three  correlated  functions — the 
training,  certification,  and  service  of  teachers.  In  no  other 
way  can  the  necessary  unity  of  work  be  maintained. 

(b).  Admission  of  Students:  The  requirements  for  admis- 
sion to  full  normal  work  in  the  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women 
is  graduation  from  a  four-year  high  school  or  its  equivalent 
with  sixteen  units  of  high-school  credit.  That  requirement 
sets  as  high  a  standard  as  is  found  in  the  country.  However, 
a  high-school  department  is  maintained  at  each  institution, 
and  the  consequent  overlapping  of  functions  to  some  extent 
obscures  a  clear-cut  requirement  for  admission.  Below  it  is 
recommended  that  the  high-school  departments  of  the  Normal 
Schools  be  abolished. 

On  admission  each  student  who  is  a  candidate  for  free  tuition 
is  required  to  pledge  herself  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of 
Virginia  for  at  least  two  years  after  leaving  the  normal  school. 
She  is  not,  however,  required  to  pledge  herself  to  remain  for 
the  full  normal  course,  nor  to  declare  any  such  intention.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  very  many  students  enter  the  normal  schools 
with  the  intention  of  remaining  either  for  the  high-school 
course  only,  or  for  one  year  only  of  the  normal  course,  and 
purposing  to  leave  after  one  or  no  years  of  normal  instruction. 

The  State  certification  system  encourages  such  action,  and 
in  some  cases  the  normal  schools  make  special  provision  for 
such  students.  The  certification  system  is  considered  below. 
Here  it  is  sufficient  to  recommend  that  no  student  be  admitted 
to  the  normal  schools  unless  she  is  ready  to  declare  her  inten- 
tion of  remaining  for  the  length  of  the  shortest  professional 
course.  No  standards  can  be  maintained  when  incomplete 
training  is  rewarded  as  at  present. 

(c).  Enrolments:  In  Table  64  are  presented  figures  showing 
enrolments  at  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women  during 


Training  of  Teachers  151 

the  regular  session  of  1918-19.  Two  facts  are  clearly  shown: 
(1)  that  high-school  students  constitute  nearly  one-third  of 
the  total  enrolments,  nearly  one-third  of  the  enrolment  at 
Farmville,  nearly  one-half  of  the  enrolment  at  Fredericksburg, 
an  almost  negligible  proportion  at  Harrisonburg,  and  nearly 
thirty  per  cent  at  Radford;  (2)  that  the  total  enrolments  are 
far  below  the  numbers  necessary  if  the  normal  schools  are  to 
meet  the  demand  for  trained  teachers  at  all  satisfactorily. 

(d).  Graduates:  In  Table  65  are  presented  figures  showing 
the  total  number  of  graduates  from  the  four  State  Normal 
Schools  for  Women  from  1914  to  1918.  Those  figures  show 
that  nearly  one-quarter  of  the  total  number  of  graduates  of  the 
past  five  years  were  not  teaching  in  1918-19.  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  normal  schools  are  at  fault.  The  reason  is  found 
in  the  low  pay  of  teachers.  Well  educated  teachers  cannot 
afford  to  teach  in  Virginia. 

(e).  High-school  Departments:  Virginia  is  one  of  the  few 
States  still  maintaining  high  school  departments  in  connection 
with  the  normal-school  courses.  The  present  practice  is  a 
survival  of  the  days  when  there  were  few  high  schools  in  the 
State.  The  time  has  come  when  the  practice  should  be  aban- 
doned. Sooner  or  later  the  inevitable  evils  of  its  continuance 
would  manifest  themselves:  (1)  the  lowering  of  normal-school 
standards;  (2)  a  diminution  or  loss  of  that  professional  atmos- 
phere which  should  permeate  the  normal  school ;  (3)  interference 
with  the  high-school  development  in  the  State;  (4)  expenditure 
of  State  funds  for  relatively  high-grade  normal  instructors 
spending  their  time  and  energy  on  high-school  teaching. 

Some  of  the  evils  are  already  manifest.  Weak  or  lacking  high 
schools  are  not  the  whole  justification  for  pupils  from  eighty 
counties  and  twelve  cities  of  the  State  enrolled  last  year  in 
high  school  departments  of  Virginia  Normal  Schools.  Rather 
one  may  say  that  high  schools  are  weak  or  lacking  in  some  com- 
munities because  the  State  maintains  high  school  departments 
at  the  State  Normal  Schools.  Again  one  cannot  say  that  a 
truly  professional  atmosphere  can  exist,  normal-school  stand- 
ards dominate,  or  State  funds  be  advantageously  spent  when 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  teaching  time  of  the  normal 
school  staff  of  instructors  is  devoted  to  high-school  work.    (Cf. 


152  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

Table  66).  Finally,  the  demands  of  normal  schools  for  larger 
accommodations  and  larger  staffs  must  be  considered  with 
due  regard  to  the  fact  that  no  small  part  of  the  accommodations 
already  provided  and  no  small  part  of  the  energies  of  the  instruc- 
tional staffs  are  devoted  to  high-school  pupils. 

(/).  "College"  courses  in  the  Normal  Schools:  The  normal 
schools  of  Virginia  have  never  begun  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
State  for  the  training  of  elementary  school  teachers,  either  in 
point  of  number  or  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  professional 
training  provided.  Nor  can  they  hope  to  do  so  within  the  next 
decade.  Nevertheless,  in  1916  the  legislature  and  the  State 
Normal  School  Board  authorized  the  four  State  Normal  Schools 
to  train  high-school  teachers  and  to  offer  four-year  "college" 
courses  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Educa- 
tion. 

This  was  a  most  unwise  step  which  should  be  retraced  at  once 
The  reasons  against  the  present  project  are  many  and  potent: 
(1).  For  many  years  the  normal  schools  of  Virginia  will  have 
enough  and  more  than  enough  to  do  to  provide  well-trained 
teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  State;  (2)  The  State 
of  Virginia  cannot  afford  to  maintain  properly  four  "colleges" 
in  addition  to  those  already  maintained;  (3)  The  inevitable 
result  of  attempts  to  provide  training  for  high  school  teachers 
in  the  normal  schools  is  the  neglect  of  the  primary  function 
for  which  the  normal  schools  were  founded  and  are  maintained, 
the  training  of  elementary  school  teachers — a  tendency  already 
observable  in  Virginia;  (4)  Numerous  other  institutions  already 
are  maintained  in,  and  partly  by  the  State,  which  are  infinitely 
better  equipped  and  prepared  to  train  high-school  teachers;  (5) 
College  and  university  education,  properly  provided,  is  very 
expensive.  The  proper  provisions  for  laboratories,  libraries, 
and  instructional  staffs  in  several  State  institutions  is  very 
wasteful.  Virginia  already  has  too  many  separate  colleges. 
(6)  The  normal-school-college  project  has  already  led  to  over- 
ambitious  and  misleading  claims  by  some  of  the  normal  schools, 
e.g.,  one  of  the  smallest  in  the  State  claiming  to  offer  a  collegi- 
ate education  "equivalent  to  that  required  for  graduation 
with  the  Bachelor's  degree  from  standard  colleges  of  the  "A" 
class  and  from  the  average  State  University." 


Training  of  Teachers  153 

(g).  Courses  Offered:  The  normal  schools  offer  three  general 
departments  of  work:  (1)  high-school  courses;  (2)  two-year 
normal  courses  for  the  training  of  elementary-school  teachers; 
(3)  four-year  "college"  courses  for  the  training  of  high-school 
teachers.     Of  these  the  first  and  last  should  be  abandoned. 

Elementary  school  teachers  cannot  be  properly  trained  in 
two  years  at  the  normal  school.  The  course  should  be  extended 
at  once  to  cover  three  years  of  instruction,  and,  as  soon  as  may 
be  possible,  it  should  be  extended  to  cover  the  four  years  now 
becoming  standard. 

(h).  Apprentice  Teaching:  Adequate  provision  for  teacher 
training  through  supervised  apprenticeship  is  a  fundamental 
necessity  for  any  normal  school.  Such  provision  is  made  at 
the  Farmville  Normal  School  through  a  training  school  main- 
tained by  the  institution  itself  and  in  the  town  schools.  At  the 
other  normal  schools  apprentice-teaching  is  provided  through 
cooperation  with  the  city  schools.  The  extent  of  the  facilities 
available  is  shown  in  Table  68. x 

The  size  of  a  normal  school  is  always  more  or  less  conditioned 
by  the  amount  of  training  facilities  available.  Those  at  present 
available  for  the  four  normal  schools  are  reasonably  adequate. 
However,  the  demand  for  trained  teachers  is  far  in  excess  of 
the  number  now  trained  in  the  normal  schools,  and  the  supply 
must  be  increased  many  fold.  That  means  either  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  normal  schools,  or  a  great  increase  in  the  enrol- 
ments of  the  existing  normal  schools.  In  the  judgment  of  the 
survey  staff  the  second  alternative  should  be  adopted.  The 
solution  suggested  is  outlined  below. 

The  apprentice  training  of  teachers  should  involve  three 
steps:  (1)  closely  supervised  apprentice-teaching  in  a  training 
school  attached  to  and  administered  by  the  normal  school  under 
its  own  control;  (2)  further  closely  supervised  teaching  in  the 
local  public  schools  in  co-operation  with  the  local  school  authori- 
ties; (3)  trial  teaching  under  less  closely  directed  supervision 
in  schools  of  the  surrounding  territory.  It  is  therefore  recom- 
mended: (1)  that  each  normal  school  be  provided  with  a  small 
training  school  to  be  conducted  under  its  own  auspices;  (2) 

1  For  the  amount  of  observation  and  apprentice  teaching  now 
afforded,  see  Table  68. 


154  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

that  the  apprentice  training  of  teachers  be  so  organized  as  to 
include  three  successive  stages:  (i)  initial  teaching  under  close 
supervision  in  the  training  school  administered  by  the  normal 
school,  (ii)  apprentice-teaching  closely  suprevised  by  the  nor- 
mal school  supervisors  in  the  local  public  schools,  and  (iii) 
trial  teaching  in  the  public  schools  in  the  territory  accessible 
to  the  normal  school. 

Space  available  here  does  not  permit  a  detailed  analysis  of 
plans  for  the  administration  of  non-local  apprentice-teaching. 
Normal  school  authorities  are  perfectly  competent  to  organize 
such  administration.    Its  advantages  are  found  in  the  fact  that: 

(1)  the  teacher  training  facilities  of  the  normal  schools  may  be 
extended  so  as  to  eliminate  the  needs  of  new  normal  schools; 

(2)  prospective  teachers  receive  training  in  real  situations 
instead  of  being  limited  to  the  somewhat  artificial  situations 
now  afforded;  (3)  the  local  schools  are  not  overwhelmed  with 
"practice  teaching;"  (4)  the  sphere  of  professional  influence  of 
the  normal  schools  is  enlarged;  (5)  some  rural  schools  may 
receive  at  least  partially  trained  teachers  instead  of  teachers 
without  training  at  all;  (6)  financial  co-operation  by  local  school 
authorities  can  be  made  to  cover  the  increased  cost  of  super- 
vision. 

(i).  Instructors:  In  Tables  69  and  70  are  presented  figures 
showing  the  training  and  teaching  experience  of  instructors 
in  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women.  As  far  as  may 
be  shown  by  such  data  the  figures  indicate  that  on  the  whole  the 
instructional  staffs  of  the  normal  schools  are  composed  of  men 
and  women  reasonably  well  qualified  by  training  and  experience. 

In  Table  71  are  presented  figures  showing  the  distribution 
of  instructors'  salaries.  From  those  figures  it  appears  that: 
(1)  in  1917-18  no  instructor  received  a  salary  of  more  than 
$2,600;  (2)  only  17  out  of  115  instructors  received  salaries  of 
more  than  $1,400;  (3)  thirty-eight  instructors  (about  one-third 
of  all)  received  salaries  of  less  than  $1,000.  No  normal  school 
can  perform  its  proper  functions  when  one-third  of  its  instruc- 
tional force  receive  salaries  less  than  those  paid  to  teachers  in 
good  public  schools.  Increased  salary  budgets  are  an  immediate 
need  for  the  normal  schools  of  Virginia. 


Training  of  Teachers  155 

ii. — COLLEGE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

In  addition  to  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women, 
the  State  makes  provision  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  the 
Department  of  Education  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  the 
Department  of  Normal  Training  of  the  College  of  William  and 
Mary,  and  in  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Education  of  the 
Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. 

(1).  University  of  Virginia:  In  1916-17  there  were  only 
forty-seven  graduates  of  the  University  of  Virginia  teaching 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  State.  How  many  thus  engaged 
had  attended  the  University  but  had  not  graduated  it  would 
be  difficult  to  determine.  At  present  the  University  makes 
its  greatest  contribution  to  the  teaching  force  of  the  public 
schools  through  its  Summer  Session. 

The  need  of  greater  attention  to  the  training  of  teachers  was 
recognized  in  1905  and  a  Department  of  Education  was  estab- 
lished. Through  the  members  of  that  Department  the  Univer- 
sity has  made  great  contributions  to  education  in  the  schools 
of  the  State.  As  yet,  however,  the  number  of  trained  teachers 
prepared  is  relatively  small,  more  because  few  students  are 
willing  to  enter  the  profession  of  teaching  at  prevailing  salaries 
than  because  of  any  fault  of  the  University  or  of  its  Depart- 
ment of  Education. 

At  present  the  Department  of  Education  is  undergoing  reor- 
ganization, and  for  that  reason  it  is  best  here  to  suggest  the 
lines  of  policy  which  should  be  followed  rather  than  attempt  to 
analyze  its  past  or  present  status. 

(a).  If  the  State  University  is  to  meet  its  duties  for  State 
service  it  must  make  proper  provision  for  the  training  of  high- 
school  teachers  and  for  the  training  of  administrative  and 
executive  officers  in  the  educational  system  of  the  State.  It 
cannot  do  this  unless  its  doors  are  open  to  women  either  through 
coeducation,  as  in  most  State  Universities,  or  through  a  coor- 
dinate women's  college  of  the  University. 

(b).  The  University  should  limit  itself  to  the  training  of 
high-school  teachers  and  administrative  officers,  leaving  the 
training  of  elementary-school  teachers  to  the  State  Normal 
Schools  and  the  training  of  vocational  teachers  to  the  Polytech- 
nic Institute. 


156  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(c).  The  University  cannot  train  teachers  without  providing 
for  supervised  apprentice  teaching  either  in  its  own  training 
school  or  in  co-operation  with  the  public  schools.  Preferably 
both  methods  should  be  employed  as  suggested  for  the  normal 
schools  above.    Plans  are  already  formed. 

(d).  Through  extension  courses  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion should  provide  for  the  training  of  high  school  teachers  and 
school  administrators  in  service. 

(2).  William  and  Mary  College:  Since  1906  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary  has  been  almost  entirely  a  State  institution, 
operated  by  a  board  appointed  by  the  Governor.  It  offers  132 
State  scholarships  to  young  men  and  women  preparing  to  teach 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  operates  a  Department 
of  Normal  Training  essentially  on  a  normal  school  basis,  a 
"State  Normal  School  Certificate"  being  granted  on  the  "Teach- 
er's Diploma"  given  to  the  student  completing  one  of  the 
"Teachers'  Courses." 

In  1916-17  there  were  111  graduates  of  the  college  teaching 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  a  large  number  of  those 
who  had  attended  the  college  for  one  or  more  years  but  did  not 
graduate. 

In  1918  the  General  Assembly  passed  an  act  providing  for 
the  admission  of  women  so  that  the  College  of  William  and 
Mary  is  now  the  only  higher  institution  financed  and  controlled 
by  the  State  (a)  providing  normal-school  training  for  men,  and 
(b)  providing  really  college  work  for  women. 

Here  again  the  Survey  Staff  finds  an  institution  in  a  stage  of 
transition  forbidding  any  profitable  analysis  of  past  or  present 
conditions. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  next  academic  year  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary  will  come  under  the  new  administration 
headed  by  a  master  school  man.  Whether  or  not  the  State  is 
justified  in  maintaining  or  subsidizing  this  institution  should 
be  determined  within  the  course  of  a  few  years.  It  is  question- 
able that  the  institution  is  so  situated  as  to  permit  it  to  operate 
satisfactorily  as  a  State  supported  teacher-training  institution.1 


1  In  1917-18  the  city  schools  of  Williamsburg  enrolled  only  206 
white  children.  Training  school  facilities  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  college  are  very  limited. 


Training  of  Teachers  157 

However,  it  is  worth  while  to  continue  the  present  experiment 
until  the  policies  of  the  new  administration  shall  approve  or 
disapprove  themselves  to  the  State.  With  the  College  of  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  as  an  institution  we  are  concerned  here  only 
with  its  teacher-training  aspects. 

(3).  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute:  The  establishment  of 
the  Agricultural  Education  Department  of  the  Virginia  Poly- 
technic Institute  is  of  such  recent  date  that  it  has  a  future  rather 
than  a  past  or  present.  Its  function  is  clearly  defined.  It  is 
an  education  department  whose  sole  function  is  to  provide 
training  for  prospective  teachers  of  agriculture  and  trades.  It 
should  be  definitely  restricted  to  that  function. 

ih. — NORMAL  TRAINING  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Virginia  is  one  of  several  States  which  have  attempted  to 
meet  the  demand  for  trained  teachers  by  subsidizing  normal 
training  departments  in  certain  high  schools.  Her  experience 
also  has  been  that  found  in  other  States — that  the  results  were 
not  satisfactory.  For  that  reason  the  State  Board  has  modified 
its  policy  and  now  provides  that  a  graduate  year  of  high-school 
work  may  be  offered  for  normal  training,  $350  being  appro- 
priated for  each  school  giving  such  a  course  provided  a  similar 
sum  be  appropriated  by  the  local  community. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  this  provision  has  practically  regulated 
the  normal  training  in  high  schools  out  of  existence,  and  fortu- 
nately so.  The  practice  of  maintaining  such  courses  in  high 
schools  is  thoroughly  unsound  and  should  be  totally  abandoned. 

iv. — THE  TRAINING  OF  COLORED  TEACHERS 

The  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  at  Petersburg 
is  the  only  institution  maintained  by  the  State  which  provides 
training  for  colored  teachers.  That  institution  functions  (a) 
as  a  central  State  high  school,  (b)  as  an  industrial  institute, 
and  (c)  as  a  State  normal  school  for  colored  teachers.  Its  total 
enrolment  is  large  (961  in  1917-18)  and  a  large  proportion  of 
all  its  graduates  are  teaching  (876  in  1917),  but  relatively  a  very 
small  proportion  of  its  students  receive  a  training  equivalent 
to  two  years  beyond  the  high  school,  the  standard  recently  set 
for  graduation  from  the  full  professional  course. 


158  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  administration  of  this  institution  is  excellent.  The 
teacher-training  courses  offered  are  as  good  as  can  be  offered 
under  the  limitations  found.  The  staff  of  instructors  is  in  gen- 
eral excellent.  The  State  is  receiving  rich  returns  from  the 
small  amount  expended  on  this  institution. 

The  school  suffers  from  many  serious  handicaps,  especially 
from  (1)  the  lack  of  colored  high  schools  in  the  State,  and  the 
consequent  poor  preparation  of  many  students  who  enter  for 
normal  training;  (2)  the  limitations  of  the  plant  and  its  equip- 
ment; (3)  inadequate  financial  support;  (4)  the  lack  of  adequate 
facilities  for  training  apprentice  teachers.  The  State  should 
provide  for  the  renovation  of  the  school  plant  and  for  more 
generous  financial  support  at  once.  Better  and  more  extensive 
training  facilities  should  be  afforded  through  co-operation  with 
the  public  colored  schools  of  Petersburg. 

In  the  near  future,  but  after  better  provision  is  made  at  the 
Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  a  second  normal 
school  for  colored  teachers  should  be  established  by  the  State. 

V. — SUMMER  SCHOOLS  AND  SUMMER  INSTITUTE'S 

For  white  teachers  Summer  Sessions  are  held  at  each  of  the 
four  State  normal  schools,  at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary, 
and  at  the  University  of  Virginia.  All  are  open  to  men  and 
women  and  offer  courses  leading  (a)  to  credit  in  regular  normal 
school,  college,  or  university  courses,  (b)  to  credit  for  the  Ele- 
mentary Professional  Certificate,  (c)  to  credit  toward  the 
Special  Certificate  in  high  school  subjects,  and  (d)  to  a  review 
of  the  elementary  branches  in  preparation  for  State  Teachers' 
Examination  for  the  First  Grade  and  Second  Grade  Certificates. 
The  review  courses  constitute  no  small  part  of  the  work  done 
in  these  Summer  Sessions  and  in  reality  the  State  thus  maintains 
in  its  own  higher  institutions  highly  organized  "cram"  courses 
for  State  certificates. 

High  school  graduates  who  complete  three  summer  courses 
of  six  weeks  each  may  secure  thus  the  Elementary  " Professional" 
Certificate,  as  also  may  holders  of  First  Grade  Certificates, 
regardless  of  previous  education  and  training.  Thus  the  State 
institutions,  through  the  State  system  of  certification,  are 
encouraged,  if  not  forced,  to  bring  their  regular  sessions  into 


Training  of  Teachers  159 

very  unfair  competition  with  their  summer  sessions.  Probably 
no  other  one  thing  has  done  more  to  destroy  the  dignity  and 
value  of  really  professional  training  for  the  teachers  of  Virginia. 

Professional  study  in  the  Summer  Sessions  of  the  State's 
higher  institutions  should  aim  at  (a)  a  continuation  of  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  in  preparation  with  the  same  standards  as  in 
the  regular  annual  sessions,  and  (b)  supplementary  training 
for  teachers  in  service.  At  present,  work  in  the  summer  sessions 
tends  to  become  a  substitute  for  rather  than  a  supplement  of 
professional  training  in  the  regular  sessions. 

Defects  in  the  present  policy  are  (1)  the  time  required  for 
recognition  is  shorter  than  that  in  the  regular  session  (eighteen 
weeks  of  summer  session  work  receives  for  the  Elementary 
Professional  Certificate  the  same  recognition  as  thirty-six  weeks 
of  work  in  the  regular  session) ;  (2)  inadequately  prepared  per- 
sons are  admitted;  (3)  no  practice  work  (practice  teaching)  is 
provided;  (4)  "cram"  courses  to  prepare  candidates  for  the 
State  Teachers'  Examinations  are  deliberately  organized  and 
fostered. 

Those  defects  may  be  remedied  somewhat:  (1)  by  requiring 
equal  time  equivalents  for  work  done  in  the  summer  session 
and  in  the  regular  session;  (2)  by  maintaining  the  same  stan- 
dards for  work  in  the  summer  session  and  in  the  regular  session; 
(3)  by  maintaining  the  same  standards  for  entrance  to  the  sum- 
mer session  and  the  regular  session;  (4)  by  eliminating  all 
"review"  courses  designed  to  prepare  candidates  for  the  State 
teachers'  examination.  Changes  in  certificating  standards  are 
considered  in  the  following  chapter.  Until  they  are  modified 
the  State's  higher  institutions  must  be  handicapped  in  their 
summer  session  work. 

For  colored  teachers,  Summer  Sessions  are  maintained  at 
the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  and  at  Hampton 
Institute.  They  are  performing  excellent  service  at  a  time  when 
the  State  makes  very  inadequate  provision  for  the  training  of 
colored  teachers. 

In  addition  to  the  Summer  Sessions  considered  above,  four- 
week  Teachers'  Institutes  have  in  the  past  been  held  for  white 
teachers  and  for  colored  teachers  in  various  parts  of  the  State. 
During  the  summer  of  1919  no  such  Institutes  are  held  for 


160  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

white  teachers,  but  the  practice  is  continued  for  colored  teachers. 
Those  institutes  were  almost  entirely  "cramming"  schools. 
They  have  no  justifiable  place  and  should  be  abolished  entirely 
or  radically  changed  in  character. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  control  and  supervision  of  all  normal  schools, 
and  of  all  teacher  training  departments  of  State  institutions 
be  centralized  in  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  that  the 
several  Boards  at  present  exercising  such  control  be  abolished. 

2.  That  the  high  school  departments  of  the  four  State  Nor- 
mal Schools  for  Women  be  abolished. 

3.  That  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women  be 
restricted  to  the  training  of  elementary-school  teachers,  and 
that  the  law  giving  them  the  power  to  train  high-school  teachers, 
provide  college  courses,  and  grant  college  degrees  be  repealed. 

4.  That  a  training  school  be  established  at  each  of  the  four 
normal  schools  for  women  not  now  maintaining  such  a  school. 

5.  That  the  scope  of  the  apprentice  teaching  be  extended 
so  as  to  include  (a)  preliminary  teaching  under  the  closest 
supervision  in  the  normal  training  school,  (b)  apprentice-teach- 
ing in  the  local  city  schools,  and  (c)  trial  teaching  in  non-local 
schools. 

6.  That  the  full  normal  course  for  white  teachers  be  extended 
to  three  years  and  at  some  future  date  to  four  years. 

7.  That  the  Department  of  Education  at  the  State  Univer- 
sity be  restricted  to  the  training  of  high-school  teachers,  of 
executive  and  administrative  school  officers,  and  to  graduate 
work  in  education. 

8.  That  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  be  given  a  period 
of  five  years  to  approve  or  disapprove  itself  as  an  institution 
entitled  to  receive  State  support  for  the  training  of  teachers. 


Training  of  Teachers  161 

9.  That  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Education  at  the 
Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute  be  restricted  to  the  training  of 
teachers  of  agriculture  and  industrial  education. 

10.  That  normal  training  departments  in  high  schools  be 
abolished. 

11.  That  better  financial  provision  be  made  for  the  Virginia 
Normal  and  Industrial  Institute. 

12.  That  provision  be  made  to  extend  the  apprentice  teach- 
ing of  colored  students  through  the  co-operation  of  the  Virginia 
Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  and  the  school  authorities 
of  Petersburg. 

13.  That  in  due  time  a  second  normal  school  for  colored 
teachers  be  established  by  the  State. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS 

THE  system  of  certificating  teachers  is  a  fundamental  factor 
affecting  the  character  of  the  instruction  provided  in  any 
State.  Its  importance  in  Virginia  deserves  a  special  chapter 
devoted  to  (i)  an  analysis  of  the  present  system,  (ii)  an  analysis 
of  the  present  teaching  force  with  respect  to  the  certificates 
held,  and  (iii)  some  suggestions  for  modification  of  the  present 
system. 

i. — THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  OF  CERTIFICATION 

In  accordance  with  recognized  good  policy  and  the  best 
practice,  all  certificates  to  teach  in  Virginia  are  issued  and 
controlled  by  the  State  Department  of  Education. 

Until  the  past  year  Virginia  probably  had  the  doubtful  honor 
of  issuing  more  kinds  of  certificates — about  thirty-six  separate 
varieties — than  any  other  State.  In  1918  that  practice  was 
abandoned  and  the  number  of  different  licenses  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  State  reduced  to  eight.  They  are  described 
below. 

(1).  Collegiate  Professional  Certificate:  This  is  the  highest 
grade  of  certificate  provided,  and  is  issued  to  graduates  of  a 
standard  four-year  college,  university,  or  normal  school,  whose 
college  work  has  included  fifteen  per  cent,  or  nine  session  hours, 
devoted  to  purely  professional  study  and  practice  teaching. 
It  is  a  "blanket"  certificate  qualifying  the  holder  to  teach  any 
subject  or  subjects  in  any  grade  of  any  public  school  in  the  State. 
It  is  valid  for  ten  years  and  renewable  for  a  similar  period  from 
time  to  time. 

(2).  Collegiate  Certificate:  The  requirements  for  this  certifi- 
cate are  the  same  as  for  the  Collegiate  Professional  Certificate 
except  that  there  is  no  requirement  for  professional  study  and 
practice.    Its  holder  is  entitled  to  the  same  privileges,  but  this 


Certification  of  Teachers  163 

certificate  is  valid  for  five  years  instead  of  ten,  and  renewable 
for  ten  if,  in  the  meantime,  the  holder  has  met  the  requirement 
for  professional  study  and  practice  teaching. 

(S).  Normal  Professional  Certificate:  This  certificate  is 
issued  to  graduates  of  the  two-year  professional  course  in  a 
standard  normal  school  based  on  the  completion  of  a  standard 
four-year  high  school  course.  It  qualifies  the  holder  to  teach 
any  grade  or  grades  in  the  elementary  school,  and,  if  a  graduate 
of  the  two-year  course  offered  at  Virginia  State  normal  schools 
for  the  special  training  of  high  school  teachers,  the  holder  may 
receive  a  special  certificate  permitting  her  to  teach  any  or  all 
subjects  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  high  school  course.  The 
Normal  Professional  Certificate  is  valid  for  ten  years  and  renew- 
able for  a  similar  period  from  time  to  time. 

(4).  Elementary  Professional  Certificate:  This  certificate  is 
issued  on  (a)  the  completion,  at  an  approved  normal  school,  of 
one  year  of  normal  school  work  based  on  high-school  gradua- 
tion, or  (b)  the  completion  of  a  prescribed  Summer  School 
course  which  may  be  completed  in  three  summer  sessions  of 
six  weeks  each,  or  in  two  summer  sessions  of  twelve  weeks  each 
— that  course  being  open  to  the  holders  of  First  Grade  Certifi- 
cates and  to  graduates  of  accredited  high  schools.  The  holder 
is  authorized  to  teach  in  the  elementary  schools  only.  The 
certificate  is  valid  for  six  years,  and  is  renewable  for  a  similar 
period  from  time  to  time. 

(5).  Special  Certificate:  A  Special  Certificate  may  be  issued 
(a)  to  persons  who  have  completed  two  years  of  standard  col- 
lege work,  (b)  to  applicants  who  have  completed,  in  an  approved 
summer  school,  a  number  of  college  grade  courses  required  for 
a  particular  subject,  (c)  to  applicants  passing  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  one  or  more  high  school  subjects,  and  (d)  to 
persons  presenting  evidence  of  adequate  preparation  in  such 
special  subjects  as  agriculture,  domestic  arts,  trades,  manual 
training,  drawing,  music,  etc.  Special  Certificates  granted 
under  the  first  three  conditions  mentioned  above  (a,b,c)  author- 
ize the  holders  to  teach  in  high  schools  the  subjects  specified 
on  the  face  of  the  certificate.  Special  Certificates  for  teaching 
such  special  subjects  as  agriculture,  etc.,  (d,  above)  authorize 


164  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

the  holders  to  teach  in  elementary  or  high  school  or  both, 
according  to  the  character  of  their  training,  and  the  limitations 
set  in  the  certificate  by  the  State  certificating  officer.  Such 
certificates  are  valid  for  six  years  and  are  renewable  for  a  simi- 
lar period  from  time  to  time. 

(6).  First  Grade  Certificate:  This  certificate  may  be  secured 
in  any  of  three  ways :  (a)  by  passing  a  satisfactory  examination 
in  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  United 
States  History,  English  History,  the  history  of  Virginia,  civics, 
physical  geography  or  general  science,  drawing,  algebra,  English 
classics,  agriculture,  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  the  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  (b)  by  the  completion  of  the  "normal 
training"  courses  in  certain  high  schools  and  other  institutions, 
or  (c)  by  graduation  from  an  accredited  high  school  and  the 
completion  of  the  first  twelve  weeks  work  of  the  prescribed 
eighteen  weeks'  Summer  School  course,  provided  the  work  is 
done  in  two  separate  summer  sessions  of  six  weeks  each.  The 
applicant  must  in  any  case  be  at  least  nineteen  years  old  and 
must  have  had  at  least  seven  months  successful .  experience. 
Applicants  under  conditions  (a)  above  must  have  had  at  least 
two  years  of  high  school  training  or  its  equivalent.  Under  con- 
ditions (b)  or  (c)  graduation  from  an  accredited  high  school  is 
required.  This  certificate  permits  the  holder  to  teach  in  the 
elementary  schools  only.  It  is  valid  for  five  years  and  renew- 
able for  a  similar  period  from  time  to  time. 

(7).  Second  Grade  Certificate:  This  is  the  lowest  grade  of 
"certificate"  issued  and  may  be  secured  (a)  by  passing  a  satis- 
factory examination  in  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  grammar 
and  composition,  United  States  history,  Virginia  history,  geo- 
graphy, civics,  drawing,  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  teaching 
methods;  (b)  by  the  completion  of  the  "normal  training"  course 
in  certain  high  schools  and  other  institutions;  (c)  by  graduation 
from  an  accredited  high  school  and  the  completion  of  the  first 
six  weeks  work  of  the  prescribed  Summer  School  Course.  The 
applicant  must  be  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age,  but  no  other 
requirements  are  specified,  so  that  persons  with  less  than  a  full 
elementary  education  may  be  eligible.  This  certificate  permits 
the  holder  to  teach  in  the  elementary  school  only.  It  is  valid 
for  two  years  and  may  be  renewed  once  only  for  a  second  period 
of  two  years. 


Certification  of  Teachers  165 

(8).  Local  Permit:  This  is  not  a  recognized  "certificate"  but 
merely  an  official  authorization  permitting  a  division  superin- 
tendent on  his  written  request  to  employ  in  an  emergency  a 
person  who  does  not  hold  a  State  teacher's  certificate.  It  may 
be  terminated  at  the  pleasure  of  the  division  superintendent, 
and  in  no  case  is  it  valid  for  a  period  lasting  longer  than  the 
last  day  of  the  June  following  its  date  of  issue. 

Further  discussion  of  these  certificates  is  reserved  for  section 
iii  of  this  chapter,  following  an  analysis  of  the  present  distribu- 
tion of  certificates.  In  anticipation,  however,  it  may  be  noted: 
(a)  that  three  of  the  licenses  to  teach  call  for  a  general  education 
not  higher  than  the  completion  of  two  years  of  high  school;  (b) 
that  five  of  the  eight  licenses  to  teach  call  for  no  professional 
training;  (c)  that  most  of  the  licenses  to  teach  are  rather  general 
in  their  application;  (d)  that  practically  all  licenses  except  the 
Second  Grade  Certificate  are  valid  without  real  limitations  of 
time.    These  facts  are  readily  seen  from  Table  75. 

ii. — THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CERTIFICATES 

In  Table  72  are  presented  figures  showing  the  proportions  of 
teachers  in  Virginia  holding  various  types  of  certificates  in 
1918-19.    Those  figures  show  several  important  facts. 

(1).  Of  all  white  teachers  in  the  State  about  twenty-three 
per  cent,  (or  one  in  every  four  or  five)  are  entitled  to  hold  what 
may  be  considered  at  all  satisfactory  certificates,  i.e.,  certifi- 
cates representing  more  than  one  year  of  education  or  profes- 
sional training  above  the  high  school.  The  great  majority  of 
those  teachers  are  employed  in  the  schools  of  cities  or  large 
towns. 

(2).  Of  colored  teachers  about  three  per  cent,  hold  certifi- 
cates of  the  character  suggested  above.  Of  all  teachers  (white 
and  colored  combined)  about  fifteen  per  cent,  hold  certificates 
of  those  types. 

(3).  About  one  fourth  of  white  teachers  and  about  the  same 
proportion  of  colored  teachers  hold  Elementary  Professional 
Certificates.  A  great  many  of  those  certificates  have  been 
received  on  the  basis  of  eighteen  weeks  of  Summer  School  work 


166  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

without  even  high  school  training,  since  until  recently  it  has 
been  possible  and  usual  for  holders  of  First  Grade  Certificates 
without  any  high  school  training  to  secure  the  Elementary 
"Professional"  Certificate  on  the  basis  of  Summer  School  work. 
In  the  conversion  of  old  certificates  under  the  new  plan  all 
Summer  School  Professional  Certificates  for  elementary  grades 
were  converted  into  the  new  "Elementary  Professional  Certifi- 
cates." This  accounts  in  great  measure  for  the  relatively  large 
number  of  Elementary  "Professional"  Certificates — profes- 
sional in  name,  but  not  always  indicative  of  real  professional 
training.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Elementary  Profes- 
sional Certificates  held  by  the  majority  of  colored  teachers. 

(4).  About  thirty  per  cent,  of  all  white  teachers  hold  First 
Grade  or  Second  Grade  Certificates.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
those  euphemistic  names  were  applied  to  these  certificates  since 
they  are  essentially  low  grade.  Practically  all  now  in  existence 
were  granted  when  no  high  school  training  was  required  to 
secure  either. 

(5).  About  forty-four  per  cent  of  all  colored  teachers  hold 
First  Grade  or  Second  Grade  Certificates  of  the  character 
described  above. 

(6).  Notwithstanding  the  large  number  of  the  low  grade 
(First  Grade  and  Second  Grade)  certificates,  one  in  every  eight 
or  nine  white  teachers,  and  one  in  every  four  or  five  colored 
teachers  were  teaching  in  1918-19  on  the  basis  of  Local  Permits. 
Most  of  those  were  persons  who  had  taken  the  examinations 
for  certificates  and  failed.  Needless  to  say,  they  are  as  a  whole 
woefully  without  qualifications  for  teaching. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  school  system  which  employs  about  one- 
third  of  its  teachers  on  the  basis  of  minimum  grade  and  emer- 
gency licenses,  and  in  which  more  than  one-half  of  the  teachers 
hold  certificates  representing  at  best  practically  no  professional 
training,  is  not  prepared  to  do  its  work  properly.  It  is,  in  fact, 
prepared  to  do  great  damage  to  the  interests  of  the  children  of 
Virginia.  Poor  teaching  represents  not  merely  a  negative  loss : 
it  represents  a  positive  damage  to  the  State  and  her  citizens. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  present  situation 
is  not  the  result  of  the  present  system  of  teacher  certification 


Certification  of  Teachers  167 

which  was  introduced  only  during  the  past  year.  Nearly  all  of 
the  present  certificates  were  issued  under  the  former  system 
and  on  former  standards.  Further,  in  the  change  from  the  old 
to  the  new  system,  common  justice  necessitated  provision  that 
no  teacher  holding  an  older  certificate  should  suffer  by  the 
change.  The  present  situation  must  be  charged,  in  part,  against 
the  older  system,  but  in  much  larger  measure  against  factors 
such  as  inadequate  salaries,  which  no  system  of  certification 
could  offset. 

The  point  cannot  be  raised  that  the  figures  presented  in 
Table  72  represent  the  situation  at  its  worst  in  an  "off  year," 
when  the  supply  of  teachers  was  very  seriously  curtailed,  and, 
therefore,  that  the  normal  situation  is  really  better  than  the 
figures  presented  would  indicate.  It  is  true  that  the  year  1918- 
19  was  an  "off  year"  and  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  secure 
teachers  of  any  sort.  It  is  also  true,  however,  that  an  analysis 
of  teachers'  certificates  in  1916-17,  or  1917-18  shows  a  situation 
even  less  satisfactory.  Thus  the  figures  given  in  Table  74  show 
that  over  one-half  of  all  white  teachers  and  about  two-thirds 
of  all  colored  teachers  held  certificates  not  higher  than  First 
Grade  in  1917-18. 1  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  "scaling  up"  method 
employed  in  the  conversion  of  old  certificates  into  new  in  1918- 
19  gave  a  much  better  appearance  to  the  situation  in  that  year 
than  was  justified  by  the  real  facts  of  the  case. 

fii. — SUGGESTIONS  FOR  MODIFICATION 

The  adoption  of  the  present  plan  for  teacher  certification 
marked  a  note- worthy  step  in  advance.  Its  recent  adoption 
precludes  any  judgment  of  its  efficacy  on  the  basis  of  experience. 
Experience  in  other  States,  however,  and  a  priori1  reasoning 
suggest  that  the  new  system  involves  serious  defects  which 
should  be  remedied: 

(1).  All  certificates  tend  to  be  of  a  "blanket"  character. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Collegiate  and  Collegiate  Pro- 
fessional Certificates  which  permit  the  holders  to  teach  not 
only  any  high  school  subject  in  which  he  may  or  may  not  have 


1    For  the  situation  in  1916-17  see  page  140  of  the  Report  of  the 
(Virginia)  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  1916-17. 


168  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

been  properly  trained,  but  also  to  teach  in  the  elementary 
school  whether  or  not  he  has  received  any  professional  training 
in  that  field.  Instances  are  not  lacking  where  the  holders  of 
such  certificates  have  been  called  upon  to  teach  subjects  which 
they  have  never  studied  and  the  present  system  of  certification 
permits  such  practice.  All  certificates  for  high  school  teachers 
should  show  on  the  face  thereof  the  subject  or  subjects  which 
the  teacher  is  qualified  to  teach. 

(2).  The  terminology  of  present  certificates  is  in  many 
respects  thoroughly  misleading.  So-called  "First  Grade"  cer- 
tificates are  really  about  sixth  grade,  and  so-called  "Second 
Grade"  certificates  are  really  about  seventh  grade.  Further 
the  so-called  "Elementary  Professional"  certificate  calls  for 
very  little  professional  work. 

(3).  The  privileges  granted  to  holders  of  low  grade  certifi- 
cates differ  so  little  from  the  privileges  granted  to  holders  of 
high  grade  certificates  that  little  incentive  is  afforded  to  the 
former  to  prepare  themselves  for  higher  grade  certificates. 

(4).  The  period  of  validity  for  low  grade  certificates  differs 
so  little,  if  at  all  in  some  cases,  from  the  period  of  validity  for 
high  grade  certificates,  that  little  incentive  is  offered  to  their 
holders  to  prepare  themselves  for  higher  grade  certificates. 

(5).  The  privileges  and  long  validity  of  non-professional 
ertificates  discount  professional  training,  and  seriously  handicap 
the  work  of  really  professional  training  in  the  normal  schools. 
For  all  practical  purposes  there  is  little  incentive  to  persons  to 
attend  the  normal  schools  for  their  full  course,  since  the  oppor- 
tunities and  rewards  of  certificates  easily  obtainable  otherwise 
are  practically  as  great  as  for  two  or  three  years  of  study  and 
expense  at  a  normal  school. 

(6).  The  present  certificating  system  sets  altogether  too 
high  a  premium  on  preparation  at  a  summer  school.  As  a  result 
of  the  present  plan,  very  many  persons  attend  summer  schools 
merely  for  the  purpose  of  taking  advantage  of  the  courses  there 
deliberately  planned  to  cram  applicants  for  certificates  by  exam- 
ination.   No  practice  teaching  is  afforded  in  the  summer  schools. 

(7).  The  present  certificating  system  is  based  on  the  "verti- 
cal" plan  whereby  certificates  are  graded  almost  solely  with 


Certification  of  Teachers  169 

reference  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  training  and  education 
received.  Better  practice  calls  for  a  basic  classification  of  certifi- 
cates on  the  "horizontal"  plan  according  to  the  type  of  teach- 
ing to  be  authorized  and  a  supplementary  classification  on  the 
"vertical"  plan  according  to  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
training  and  education  of  the  holder.  According  to  this  system 
there  should  be  three  basic  groups  of  teachers'  certificates — (1) 
those  for  teaching  in  the  high  school;  (2)  those  for  teaching  in 
the  elementary  school;  and  (3)  those  for  special  fields  of  teach- 
ing such  as  kindergarten,  drawing,  etc. — and  different  classes 
of  certificates  such  as  (a)  professional  or  class  A;  (b)  class  B; 
(c)  class  C.  A  suggested  scheme  for  such  a  system  in  Virginia 
is  outlined  in  Table  76. 

(8) .  No  certificating  system  can  stand  by  itself.  Its  efficacy 
in  maintaining  standards  and  encouraging  the  development 
of  a  properly  qualified  teaching  force  is  conditioned  by  the 
maintenance  of  a  proper  relation  between  the  certificating 
system,  the  institutions  for  teacher  training,  the  teachers' 
tenure  of  office,  teachers'  salaries,  and  teachers'  pensions.  The 
present  certificating  plan  is  not  properly  related  to  the  work  of 
the  normal  schools  and  has  no  official  relation  at  least  to  the 
other  factors  mentioned. 

To  overcome  the  defects  of  the  present  system  a  plan  of 
reorganization  is  suggested  below  and  summarized  in  Table  76. 

(i).  The  system  should  involve  basically  a  classification  of 
certificates  according  to  the  classes  of  teaching  to  be  performed, 
and  secondarily  according  to  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
holders'  qualifications.  Hence  three  groups  of  certificates  are 
recommended:  (1)  for  high  school  teachers,  (2)  for  elementary 
school  teachers;  (3)  for  teachers  of  special  branches.1  Each  of 
those  groups  of  certificates  should  involve  three  classes:  (a) 
the  professional  or  class  A  certificate,  granted  on  the  basis  of 
the  entire  amount  of  academic  and  professional  training 
demanded  for  fully  trained  teachers,  (b)  the  class  B  certificate 
granted  on  the  basis  of  somewhat  advanced  but  not  complete 
educational  training,  (c)  the  class  C  certificate,  granted  on  the 


1    The   introduction   of   the   six-three-two   or  the   five-three-three 
organization  would  involve  a  four-fold  classification.    See  Chapter  XVI. 


170  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

basis  of  at  least  one  year  of  study  beyond  the  high  school  or  its 
equivalent.  All  other  licenses  to  teach  should  receive  no  "cer- 
tificate" rank,  but  be  considered  merely  as  permits  to  teach  in 
an  emergency  situation  after  all  other  grades  of  teachers  have 
been  exhausted.  For  holders  of  present  certficates  a  period  of 
time  should  be  granted  to  reach  the  standards  thus  set,  or  lose 
present  standing.  That  period  may  well  be  not  less  than  five 
years  or  more  than  the  period  set  for  the  validity  of  the  certifi- 
cates now  held. 

(ii).  Every  certificate  issued  should  bear  on  its  face  an  indi- 
cation of  the  grades  or  subjects  which  it  authorizes  the  holder 
to  teach.  Each  Secondary  (high  school)  Certificate  and  Special 
Certificate  should  always  specify  the  grades  and  subjects  which 
the  holder  is  qualified  to  teach. 

(iii).  No  certificate,  when  originally  issued,  should  be  valid 
for  more  than  three  years.  After  the  holder  has  shown  his  fit- 
ness to  teach,  it  is  proper  to  renew  the  certificate  for  a  longer 
period,  but  in  no  case  should  the  holder  of  a  low  grade  certifi- 
cate be  permitted  to  secure  a  second  renewal  without. increased 
qualifications. 

(iv).  The  holders  of  high  grade  certificates  should  receive 
recognition  of  superior  qualifications  through  higher  salaries, 
more  secure  tenure  of  office,  and  through  provision  for  retire- 
ment pensions.  No  holder  of  low  grade  certificates  should  be 
entitled  to  tenure  of  office  or  retirement  pensions. 

Details  of  the  proposed  modifications  in  the  system  of  certifi- 
cation cannot  be  discussed  here.  Essentials  are  indicated  in 
suggestive  form  in  Table  76. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

That  the  system  of  teacher  certification  in  Virginia  be 
remodeled  so  as  to  correct  existing  defects,  and  to  provide  for 
the  factors  suggested  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER  X 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

IN  1916,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Education,  Virginia  stood  thirty-second  among  the  States 
of  the  Union  with  respect  to  the  proportion  of  the  total  popu- 
lation attending  high  school  nnd  thirty-fourth  with  respect  to 
the  proportion  of  pupils  enrolled  attending  high  school.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  large  negro  population 
in  Virginia  renders  any  such  comparison  misleading,  since  the 
economic  and  social  status  of  the  negroes  precludes  any  very  large 
negro  enrolment  in  the  high  school  even  if  ample  facilities  were 
provided.  Among  the  Southern  States  Virginia  easily  stands  in 
the  first  place  with  respect  to  the  proportions  of  the  total  popu- 
lation or  of  the  school  enrolment  attending  the  high  school.1 

i. — HIGH  SCHOOL  ENROLMENTS 

In  Table  78  are  presented  figures  showing  for  1917-18  the 
number  of  high  schools  of  various  classes  in  Virginia.  Those 
figures  show  that  there  were  665  schools  in  the  State  offering 
some  amount  and  some  kind  of  high  school  work  in  1917-18. 
Of  these  only  227  (about  one-third)  were  four-year  accredited 
high  schools,  184  (about  28  per  cent)  were  three  or  four  year 
unaccredited  schools,  and  194  (about  three-tenths)  were  schools 
offering  less  than  three  years  of  high  school  work.  There  can 
be  little  question  that  too  many  weak  schools  are  attempting 
to  provide  high  school  education  in  Virginia. 

In  Table  80  are  presented  figures  showing  for  1918-19  the 
number  of  "high  schools"  of  various  sizes.  These  figures  show 
that  157  schools  (nearly  three-tenths  of  all)  had  a  total  enrol- 
ment each  of  not  more  than  fifteen  pupils.  Seventy-three  of 
those  schools  had  each  not  more  than  ten  pupils. 

The  evils  of  the  situation  are  obvious:  (1)  such  schools  are 
always  very  expensive  if  proper  instruction  is  provided;  (2) 

1  Cf.  Table  77  and  page  23  of  the  Report  of  the  (United  States) 
Commission  of  Education,  1917. 


172  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

ordinarily  proper  instruction  is  not  provided;  (3)  attempts 
to  provide  high  school  instruction  in  such  small  schools  almost 
invariably  lead  to  one  or  both  of  two  evils  (a)  the  unjustifiable 
use  of  school  funds  for  a  few  upper-grade  children  at  the  expense 
of  children  in  the  elementary  school,  (b)  encroachment  on  the 
teacher's  attention  to  the  elementary  grade  pupils. 

Those  evils  are  common  in  the  rural  districts  of  Virginia. 
How  can  they  be  remedied?  They  may  be  remedied:  (1)  by 
refusing  to  permit  State  funds  to  be  used  for  high-school  pur- 
poses unless  the  enrolment  appears  large  enough  to  warrant  its 
maintenance  (e.g.  not  less  than  ten  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade) ; 
(2)  by  requiring  higher  standards  for  recognition;  (3)  by  a  reor- 
ganization of  the  school  system  as  recommended  in  Chapter 
XVI. 

In  Tables  81-82  are  presented  figures  showing  the  enrolments 
in  various  high-school  grades.  These  two  facts  are  especially 
noteworthy. 

(1)  There  is  a  great  amount  of  "dropping  out"  after  the 
first  high  school  grade,  particularly  in  the  non-city  schools 
where  only  nine  per  cent  of  the  boys,  eleven  per  cent  of  the 
girls,  and  ten  per  cent  of  all  pupils  are  enrolled  in  the  last  grade 
of  the  high  schools. 

(2)  There  is  a  noteworthy  difference  between  the  enrolment 
of  boys  and  girls,  particularly  in  the  cities  where  in  the  fourth 
grade  of  the  high  school  the  number  of  girls  in  attendance  is 
about  double  that  of  boys. 

Both  of  these  phenomena  are  common  throughout  the  coun- 
try, but  in  few  cases  are  they  found  in  such  an  aggravated  form. 
What  are  the  reasons?  It  is  to  be  expected,  of  course,  that 
many  pupils  will  leave  school  before  the  completion  of  the 
course,  and  it  is  but  natural,  perhaps,  that  economic  and  social 
forces  should  influence  the  withdrawal  of  boys  earlier  and  more 
heavily  than  the  withdrawal  of  girls.  Other  factors,  however, 
are  here  involved.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey  staff  contri- 
buting factors  are :  (a)  the  lack  of  a  compulsory  attendance  law 
which  would  serve  to  build  up  habits  and  encourage  attend- 
ance; (b)  the  existence  of  numerous  anaemic  schools  which 
cannot  possibly  provide  proper  stimuli  for  secondary  education 
and  sometimes  may  actually  discourage  further  schooling;  (c) 


Secondary  Education  173 

the  rigidity  of  many  curricula;  (d)  the  character  of  the  studies 
offered  (see  below);  (e)  poor  teaching;  (f)  an  ill-adapted  form 
of  school  organization. 

Corresponding  remedies  are :  (a)  the  passage  of  a  real  compul- 
sory attendance  law  (see  Chapter  III);  (b)  the  elimination  of 
weak  schools  through  consolidation  (see  Chapter  XV);  (c-d) 
greater  flexibility  in  the  curricula  and  improvements  in  the 
courses  of  study  (see  below  in  this  chapter);  (e)  improved 
teaching  (see  Chapters  VII-IX  and  below  in  this  chapter) ;  (f ) 
a  reorganization  of  the  school  system  as  recommended  in  chap- 
ter XVI. 

ii. — THE  TEACHING  FORCE 

The  quality  of  the  teaching  force  of  any  high  school  system 
is  best  judged  by  the  character  of  the  education  and  training 
which  the  teachers  have  received.  Accepted  minimum  stand- 
ards throughout  the  country  are  graduation  from  an  approved 
four-year  college,  and  proper  standards  include  some  amount  of 
professional  training  either  as  a  part  of  the  under-graduate 
work  or  supplementing  it. 

What  is  the  situation  in  Virginia? 

In  Table  83  are  presented  figures  showing  that  in  the  school 
year  1916-171  more  than  one-third  of  the  high-school  teachers 
in  the  State  had  received  less  than  two  years  of  college  education. 
Table  85  shows  that  for  1918-19  only  a  little  more  than  one 
quarter  of  the  non-city  high-school  teachers  had  received  four 
years  of  college  education  and  that  nearly  fifteen  per  cent,  had 
received  no  regular  education  above  the  high  school.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  as  a  body,  particularly  in  the  non-city 
districts,  high  school  teachers  in  Virginia  are  not  well  qualified 
for  their  work. 

The  principle  difficulties  of  the  present  situation  are  three: 
(1)  numerous  small  and  weak  high  schools  cannot  afford  to 
secure  the  services  of  well  trained  teachers;  (2)  with  very  few 
exceptions  the  salaries  paid  to  high  school  teachers  are  insuffi- 
cient to  justify  men  and  women  spending  four  years  for  a  rela- 

1  This  year  is  purposely  chosen  to  avoid  the  peculiar  war-time 
conditions  later. 


174  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

tively  expensive  college  education;  (3)  heretofore  colleges  in 
the  State  have  failed  to  provide  properly  for  the  professional 
training  of  high-school  teachers. 

It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  Virginia  has  had  to  depend  on 
out-of-State  colleges  for  over  one-fourth  of  her  high-school 
teachers.  In  Table  84  are  presented  figures  showing  the  source 
of  supply  for  high-school  teachers  having  received  at  least  two 
two  years  of  college  education.  That  table  shows  several  facts : 
(1)  that  State-aided  colleges  in  1916-17  supplied  less  than  oue- 
sixth  of  college  trained  high-school  teachers  and  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  all  high-school  teachers  in  the  State;  (2)  that  privately 
supported  colleges  in  Virginia  supplied  nearly  one-half  of  all 
college-trained  high-school  teachers  and  over  one-third  of  all 
high-school  teachers  in  the  State;  (3)  that  out-of-the-State 
colleges  furnished  one-fourth  of  all  college  trained  high-school 
teachers,  and  one-fourth  of  all  high  school  teachers  in  1916-17. 

Remedies  are  to  be  found  in  (a)  the  elimination  of  high-school 
work  in  many  small  schools,  and  consolidation;  (b)  increasing 
the  salaries  of  high  school  teachers;  (c)  better  provision  for  the 
professional  training  of  high-school  teachers  in  the  colleges  of 
the  State ;  (d)  modification  of  the  present  system  of  certification 
(cf.  chapter  IX). 

In  Table  63  are  presented  figures  showing  for  1918-19  the 
average  annual  salaries  of  high-school  teachers  in  Virginia. 
Those  figures  show  that  in  non-city  high  schools  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  teachers  received  an  annual  salary  of  less  than  $600 
and  that  in  city  high  schools  one-tenth  of  the  teachers  received 
less  than  $600  per  annum.  Such  salaries  offer  little  inducement 
to  men  and  women  to  spend  four  years  and  a  condiderable 
amount  of  money  in  a  College  education  for  the  purpose  of 
high  school  teaching. 

ih. — SECONDARY-SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 

At  present  plans  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  of  the 
State  Department  of  Education  involve  a  radical  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  secondary  school  system.  According  to  the  new 
regulations  the  older  triple  standards  of  First-class,  Second- 
class,  and  Third-class  high  schools  is  abandoned  and  for  the 
future  onty  two  classes  of  high  schools  are  to  be  standardized; 


Secondary  Education  175 

(a)  junior  high  schools,  including  grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine, 
and  (b)  senior  high  schools,  including  grades  eight,  nine,  ten 
and  eleven. 

The  problem  of  reorganization  is  considered  in  some  detail 
in  Chapter  XVI.  Here  it  may  be  stated,  however,  that  in  the 
judgment  of  the  survey  staff  that  plan,  though  aiming  at  desira- 
ble changes  in  school  organization,  is  fundamentally  wrong  in 
two  respects:  (1)  the  division  of  grades  is  unsound;1  (2)  practical 
school  administration  requires  a  clearer  distinction  between  the 
junior  high  school  and  the  senior  high  school,  and,  as  soon  as 
possible,  the  elimination  of  the  overlapping.  Until  the  present 
school  organization  is  converted  into  the  new  organization  three 
types  of  secondary  schools  must  be  recognized;  (a)  the  junior 
high  school,  (b)  the  senior  high  school,  and  (c)  the  present 
four-year  high  school.  The  Board's  plan  provides  for  (a)  and 
(c)  but  leaves  (b)  unprovided  for.  Ultimately  (c)  should  disap- 
pear. The  plan  proposed  by  the  State  Board  fosters  its  perpet- 
uation. 

iv. — COURSE  OF  STUDY 

At  present  writing  the  plans  for  reorganization  are  so  imcom- 
plete  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  thorough  analysis.  What 
the  final  plans  will  be  or  what  their  effect  may  be  cannot  be 
prophesied. 

An  analysis  of  some  existing  conditions,  however,  present 
certain  facts  which  should  be  recognized  in  reorganizing  the 
secondary-school  course  of  sudy. 

In  1918-19  there  were  but  five  junior  high  schools  in  operation 
in  the  State  (three  in  the  cities  of  Richmond  and  Roanoke, 
and  two  in  non-city  districts)  so  that  practically  all  interpreta- 
tion of  existing  conditions  must  involve  primarily  the  four  year 
high  school  course. 

For  high  schools  organized  with  four  grades  the  State  Board 
sets  the  foil  owing  curriculum  standards:  Total  number  of  "units"2 
required  for  graduation  16,  distributed  as  follows — English  4, 
Mathematics  (for  non-vocational  courses)  2,  History  (American 

1    See  chapter  XVI. 

3  "A  unit  means  a  recitation  period  of  at  least  forty  minutes,  five 
times  a  week,  for  at  least  thirty-six  weeks,  devoted  to  the  completion 
of  an  assigned  amount  of  subject  matter." 


176  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

History  and  Civics)  1,  Science  (Agriculture  with  laboratory 
for  rural  schools,  and  Home  Economics  for  girls  recommended, 
provided  a  teacher  of  appropriate  qualifications  be  secured) 
1,  Electives  8. 

This  program  is  very  flexible  and  cannot  seriously  handicap 
any  high  school.  The  only  points  of  doubtful  validity  are  the 
requirement  of  four  full  units  (one  fourth  of  the  total  high- 
school  course)  in  English,  and  the  requirement  of  two  full  units 
(one-eighth  of  the  total  course)  in  mathematics.  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  survey  staff  the  requirements  for  English  should  not 
exceed  three  units  (the  standard  set  by  the  Committee  of  the 
National  Education  Association  on  the  Articulation  of  High 
School  and  College)  and  the  absolute  requirements  for  mathe- 
matics should  be  eliminated. 

In  Table  86  are  presented  figures  showing  the  numbers  and 
per  cents  of  pupils  engaged  in  various  high  school  studies  in 
1918-19  together  with  figures  showing  the  numbers  and  pro- 
portions of  schools  in  which  pupils  studied  various  subjects. 
Those  figures  show  several  important  facts. 

(1).  They  show  that  in  1918-19  three-fourths  of  all  pupils 
in  non-city  high  schools,  three-fifths  of  all  pupils  in  city  high 
schools  and  nearly  seven-tenths  of  all  high  school  pupils  were 
studying  algebra  in  1918-19.  To  say  the  least,  it  is  doubtful 
that  such  a  large  proportion  of  pupils  can  profitably  study  that 
subject.  The  common  requirement  of  algebra  for  all  pupils  in 
the  first  year  of  high  school  work  has  no  justification. 

(2).  Nearly  two-thirds  of  all  pupils  in  non-city  high  schools, 
nearly  one-half  of  all  pupils  in  city  high  schools,  and  nearly 
three-fifths  of  all  high  school  pupils  were  engaged  in  the  study 
of  Latin.    For  this  there  is  no  valid  reason. 

(3).  Only  fifteen  per  cent  of  all  pupils  in  non-city  high- 
schools  were  engaged  in  the  study  of  agriculture. 

(4).  Only  eight  per  cent  of  all  pupils  in  non-city  high- 
schools,  about  twenty  per  cent  of  all  pupils  in  city  high  schools, 
and  thirteen  per  cent  of  all  high  school  pupils  were  engaged  in 
the  study  iof  home  economics. 

(5).  All  other  practical  arts  or  vocational  subjects,  except 
some  commercial  studies,  engaged  the  attention  of  an  insignifi- 
cant proportion  of  high  school  pupils. 


Secondary  Education  177 

(6).  Only  6.2  per  cent  of  all  high  schools  provide  any  com- 
mercial studies  and  only  1.5  per  cent  of  all  high  schools  provide 
manual  arts  courses. 

All  in  all  present  practice  in  the  Virginia  high  schools  is  highly 
academic  and  makes  little  provision  for  the  boy  or  girl  whose 
interest  and  capacities  are  adapted  to  practical  arts  work.  It 
is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  failure  to  make  proper  pro- 
vision for  non-academic  studies  in  the  high  schools  of  Virginia 
explains  in  part  the  relatively  small  number  of  boys  enrolled 
and  the  great  amount  of  "dropping  out"  to  which  attention 
was  called  in  an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  present  practice  calls  for  modification  in  two  related 
respects  (a)  greater  flexibility  in  the  program  of  the  high  school 
and  (b)  the  introduction  of  more  practical  arts  studies. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  school  system  be  reorganized  as  recommended 
in  Chapter  XVI. 

2.  That  no  state  aid  be  granted  to  high  schools  having  less 
than  ten  pupils  enrolled  in  the  eighth  grade,  provided  that  the 
State  Board  of  Education  be  permitted  to  authorize  such  aid 
where  consolidation  or  transportation  is  impracticable. 

3.  That  the  standards  of  certification  for  high  school  teachers 
be  modified  as  recommended  in  Chapter  IX. 

4.  That  better  provision  be  made  for  non-academic  studies 
in  the  secondary  schools. 

5.  That  the  minimum  requirements  for  graduation  from  an 
accredited  school  be  modified  so  as  to  prescribe  three  units  of 
English,  one  unit  of  social  science,  one  unit  of  natural  science, 
and  to  require  the  completion  of  at  least  three  units  of  related 
sequential  work  in  some  one  field  in  addition  to  English. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PRACTICAL  ARTS  EDUCATION 

[JNTIL  very  recently  traditional  influences  tended  to  limit 
public  education  in  Virginia  to  those  studies  in  which  the 
intellectual  and  cultural  elements  dominated  almost,  if  not 
quite,  to  the  exclusion  of  practical  arts  and  vocational  educa- 
tion. Not  until  within  the  past  decade  or  so  was  any  beginning 
made  to  extend  the  scope  of  education  beyond  the  intellectual, 
academic,  or  cultural,  and  even  at  present  it  cannot  be  said 
that  more  than  initial  steps  have  been  taken  to  place  practical 
arts  education  on  its  proper  footing  in  the  State. 

In  this  chapter  an  attempt  is  made  to  analyze  the  present 
status  and  to  outline  the  proper  development  of  practical  arts 
and  vocational  education  in  Virginia. 

i. — AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 

In  spite  of  the  rapid  development  of  shipping  industries  on 
the  coast,  of  commerce  and  manufacture  in  the  cities,  and  of 
mining  in  the  mountain  districts,  Virginia  remains  predomi- 
nantly an  agricultural  State.  Thus  Table  1  shows  that  seventy- 
two  of  the  one  hundred  counties  of  the  State  are  100  per  cent 
rural  and  that  about  ninety  counties  are  more  than  two-thirds 
rural.  Thus  also  Table  3  shows  that  in  1910  about  forty-five 
per  cent  of  all  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  were 
engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  agriculture.  Further  Table  1  shows 
that  in  1917  more  than  three-fifths  of  the  entire  population  of 
the  State  lived  in  the  open  country  or  in  communities  of  less 
than  100  population. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  on  the  whole  agriculture  in  Virginia 
is  carried  on  efficiently  and  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern 
methods.  Rather  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  on  the  whole 
lack  of  the  most  elementary  principles  of  agriculture  is  costing 
the  State  hundreds  of  thousand  of  dollars  annually  in  misdi- 
rected labor,  in  sub-capacity  production,  and  through  impov- 
erishment of  the  soil. 


Practical  Arts  Education  179 

What  has  public  education  done  in  Virginia  to  reduce  that 
loss  and  to  improve  the  agricultural  production  of  the  State? 

Prior  to  1918  the  State  had  taken  three  steps  through  the 
public  schools  to  encourage  agricultural  education:  (1)  it  had 
provided  for  the  introduction  of  gardening  and  agriculture  into 
the  program  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  elementary  grades. 
(2)  it  had  provided  for  agriculture  in  the  high-school  course  of 
study;  (3)  it  had  provided  for  the  establishment  of  ten  "con- 
gressional district''  agricultural  high  schools. 

(1).  Agriculture  in  the  Elementary  Grades.  The  State  Course 
of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools  provides  for  school  gardening 
in  the  fifth  grade,  and  for  elementary  agriculture  in  the  sixth 
and  seventh  grades.  Excellent  recommendations  and  sugges- 
tions are  made,  but — in  nine-tenths  of  the  schools  no  attention 
whatever  is  paid  to  those  recommendations  and  suggestions. 
Provision  for  teaching  agriculture  in  the  elementary  school  is 
for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  printed  page  of  the  State 
Course  of  Study.1 

(#).  Agriculture  in  the  High  Schools.  In  1918-19  about  forty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  high-schools  of  Virginia  had  courses  in  agri- 
culture enrolling  pupils,  and  2,337  (15  per  cent)  of  all  pupils 
enrolled  in  non-city  high  schools  were  engaged  in  its  study.2 
For  the  most  part  those  courses  were  extremely  superficial,  if 
for  no  other  reason,  because  not  one  high  school  in  ten  engaged 
a  teacher  even  moderately  trained  for  the  purpose.  On  the 
whole  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  the  ordinary  high  school  of 
Virginia  cannot  be  considered  otherwise  than  a  failure  as  far  as 
practical  training  for  agricultural  occupations  is  concerned. 

(3).  High  School  Departments  of  Vocational  Agriculture:  By 
an  act  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1918  the  provisions  of  the 
federal  Smith-Hughes  Act  were  accepted  and  the  State  Board 
of  Education  was  designated  to  act  as  the  State  Board  of  Voca- 
tional Education.  In  accordance  with  that  act  provision  was 
made  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  agriculture  at  the  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute,  for  the  establishment  of  vocational  agri- 
culture in  high  schools,  and  for  the  appointment  of  a  State 
(Department)  supervisor  of  vocational  agriculture.     The  old 

«    See  Table  36. 
3    See  Table  86. 


180  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

"congressional  district"  agricultural  high  schools  were  converted 
into  local  high  schools  operating  departments  of  vocational 
agriculture,  and  such  departments  were  established  in  eight 
other  high  schools.  In  1918  eighteen  high  schools  were  oper- 
ating departments  of  vocational  agriculture  and  enrolled  261 
"vocational"  pupils. 

For  agricultural  education  the  ground  has  barely  been  broken 
in  Virginia,  and  much  remains  to  be  done  if  the  real  needs  of 
the  State  are  to  be  met.  The  main  lines  of  development  should 
be:  (a)  actual  carrying  out  of  the  recommendations  of  the  State 
Course  of  Study  for  the  teaching  of  the  elements  of  agriculture 
in  grades  six  and  seven,  preferably  in  the  junior  high  school 
recommended  in  Chapter  XVI ;  (b)  provision  for  really  effective 
instruction  in  agriculture  in  every  rural  high  school;  (c)  pro- 
vision for  the  extended  development  of  intensively  vocational 
departments  of  agriculture  (Smith-Hughes  type)  in  at  least 
one  high  school  in  each  county  of  the  State;  (d)  provision  for 
the  training  of  competent  teachers  of  agriculture. 

The  provision  for  training  in  elementary  agriculture  in  grades 
six  and  seven  (junior  high  school)  is  necessary  because  the  great 
majority  of  pupils  will  never  progress  further.  Courses  in  agri- 
culture in  the  ordinary  rural  high  schools  should  provide  a 
basis  of  general  agricultural  information  available  to  all  pupils 
in  whatever  fields  their  major  interests  may  lie.  In  the  voca- 
tional department  of  agriculture  in  selected  high  schools  the 
courses  should  be  designed  to  develop  intensively  vocational 
ability.  Without  provision  for  competent  teachers  agricul- 
tural education  in  any  of  the  phases  mentioned  cannot  become 
effective. 

ii. — DOMESTIC  ARTS  EDUCATION 

Prior  to  1918  Virginia  had  taken  three  steps  for  the  develop- 
ment of  domestic-arts  education  in  the  public  schools:  (1)  it 
had  introduced  into  the  Elementary  School  Course  of  Study 
instruction  in  sewing  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  grades,  and 
instruction  in  cooking  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades;  (2)  it 
had  introduced  cooking  and  sewing  into  the  program  of  the 
high  schools;  (3)  it  had  made  provision  for  courses  in  "the 
domestic  arts  sciences"  in  the  "congressional  districts"  agri- 
cultural high  schools  previously  described. 


Practical  Arts  Education  181 

(1).  Domestic  Arts  in  the  Elementary  Grades:  The  State 
Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools  makes  excellent  recom- 
mendations for  instruction  in  sewing  and  cooking  in  the  upper 
elementary  grades.  For  all  but  a  few  schools  in  the  State,  how- 
ever, the  project  ends  in  those  printed  recommendations.  Not 
one  white  school  in  ten  even  pretends  to  provide  the  instruction 
recommended  or  any  other  instruction  in  the  domestic  arts. 
Only  in  colored  schools  has  any  real  attempt  been  made  to  pro- 
vide such  instruction.  Due  largely  to  the  efforts  of  the  super- 
vising industrial  teachers  for  colored  schools  the  majority  of 
those  schools  have  made  serious  attempts  to  provide  instruc- 
tion in  domestic  arts  and  have  made  very  commendable  pro- 
gress, in  spite  of  an  almost  prohibitive  lack  of  necessary  equip- 
ment and  supplies.  Domestic  arts  instruction  in  white  elemen- 
tary schools  for  the  State  as  a  whole  has  been  a  conspicuous 
failure.  In  colored  elementary  schools  it  has  had  a  most  prom- 
ising beginning. 

(2).  Domestic  Arts  in  the  Regular  High  Schools:  According 
to  the  high  school  returns  for  1918-19  less  than  twenty  per  cent 
of  the  high  schools  of  the  State  had  pupils  enrolled  in  domestic 
arts  courses  and  only  3,259  high  school  pupils  (less  than  one- 
fifth  of  the  girls)  enrolled  were  engaged  in  those  courses.  In 
non-city  high  schools  only  11.5  per  cent  of  the  girls  and  in  the 
city  schools  about  30.0  of  the  girls  were  engaged  in  the  study 
of  domestic  arts.1  The  record  of  graduates  of  the  public  high 
schools  of  Virginia2  shows  that  by  far  the  greatest  proportion 
of  girls  pass  through  the  high  school  without  any  contact  with 
domestic-arts  instruction,  particularly  in  non-city  districts. 

(3).  Special  Protisions  for  Domestic  Arts  Education:  Prior 
to  the  acceptance  of  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  a 
special  intensive  form  of  domestic  arts  instruction  was  provided 
in  the  "congressional  district"  agricultural  high  schools.  By 
the  acceptance  of  the  provisions  of  that  act  the  State  made  it 
possible  (a)  to  secure  funds  for  the  training  and  salaries  of 
special  domestic-arts  teachers;  (b)  to  secure  the  services  of  a 
special  supervisor  of  domestic-arts  education;  (c)  to  make  better 

>    See     Table     86. 

1    State  Board  of  Education   Bulletin,   July    1918,   vol.   I,   no.   1, 
Supplement  no.  1. 


182  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

provision  for  domestic-arts  education  in  the  high  schools  of  the 
State.  The  College  of  William  and  Mary  and  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Harrisonburg  have  been  designated  institutions  for 
the  special  training  of  domestic-arts  teachers  and  a  State 
(Department)  supervisor  of  domestic-arts  education  (part- 
time  service  only)  has  been  appointed. 

As  with  agricultural  education  it  can  only  be  said  that  a 
beginning  has  been  made  for  effective  instruction  in  the  domestic 
arts.  Future  development  must  depend  on  the  extent  to  which 
are  carried  out  effectively  the  following  projects:  (1)  the  actual 
carrying  out  of  a  real  program  of  domestic-arts  education  in 
grades  six  and  seven  (preferably  in  the  junior  high  school1); 
(2)  better  provision  for  general  courses  in  domestic  arts  in  the 
regular  high  school ;  (3)  provision  for  intensive  courses  in  domes- 
tic arts  in  selected  high  schools  according  to  the  provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  act;  (4)  provision  for  the  training  of  compe- 
tent teachers. 

There  can  be  no  justification  for  the  present  neglect  of 
domestic  arts  education  in  the  great  majority  of  public  schools 
in  Virginia.  It  should  not  be  possible  for  a  girl  to  pass  through 
the  school  system  without  some  contact  with  the  arts  and 
sciences  which  must  in  greater  or  less  degree  condition  her 
success  as  a  homemaker. 

ih. — COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION 

Commercial  education  is  of  course  possible,  and  probably 
desirable,  only  in  the  larger  high  schools  of  the  State.  At 
present  it  is  provided  in  some  degree  in  thirty-three  schools  of 
the  State  and  in  1918-19  there  were  reported  1,555  high-school 
pupils  engaged  in  the  stud}7  of  commercial  branches.2  In  that 
year  about  twelve  per  cent  of  all  pupils  in  city  high  schools  were 
reported  engaged  in  such  studies.2 

Apparently  southern  cities  in  general  have  not  given  as  much 
attention  to  commercial  education  as  have  cities  in  other  parts 
of  the  country,  the  median  per  cent  of   high   school  pupils 

»    Cf.  Chapter  XVI. 

s  Those  figures  represent  gross  enrolments,  each  pupil  being  counted 
as  many  times  as  he  or  she  was  registered  in  different  commercial 
studies.    Net  enrolments  are  considerably  less. 


Practical  Arts  Education  183 

engaged  in  commercial  studies  being  about  fifteen  for  southern 
cities  (population  10,000  or  over)  as  compared  with  a  median  of 
thirty-three  for  cities  of  the  same  size  in  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try.1 In  Virginia  some  provision  for  commercial  education 
should  be  made  in  every  city  and  somewhat  extensive  provision 
should  be  made  in  Alexandria,  Charlottesville,  Danville,  Lynch- 
burg, Newport  News,  Norfolk,  Petersburg,  Portsmouth,  Rich- 
mond and  Roanoke.  The  general  need  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  in  1916  (latest  available  figures)  there  were  eleven  private 
commercial  schools  in  Virginia  enrolling  2,430  students. 

The  past  half  decade  has  witnessed  great  development  in  the 
commerce  and  trade  of  cities  in  Virginia.  If  their  needs  are  to 
be  met,  far  better  provision  must  be  made  for  commercial  educa- 
tion, not  only  of  the  clerical  type  heretofore  dominant  but 
enlarged  so  as  to  compass  the  larger  fields  of  merchandizing 
and  store  service.  The  proximity  of  Alexandria  to  Washington 
and  the  opportunities  there  afforded  for  clerical  occupations 
opens  up  a  need  for  the  development  of  clerical  education  in  the 
Virginia  city.  Richmond,  Norfolk,  Roanoke,  Portsmouth, 
Petersburg,  and  Newport  News  possess  exceptional  opportu- 
nities for  the  development  of  clerical  and  commercial  courses. 
Those  opportunities  must  not  be  lost. 

iv. — INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

In  1910  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  manufacturing 
and  mechanical  pursuits  in  Virginia  was  161,885,  or  slightly  more 
than  one-fifth  of  all  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations. 
Since  that  time  war  conditions  have  caused  the  industries  in 
some  parts  of  the  State  to  develop  by  leaps  and  bounds  so  that 
in  all  probability  more  than  200,000  persons  are  engaged  in 
industrial  occupations. 

To  what  extent  the  newer  industries  may  persist  or  the 
enlarged  scope  of  older  industries  continue  cannot  be  foretold. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  their  immediate  development 
and  their  future  maintenance  will  depend  in  no  small  degree  on 
the  extent  to  which  the  skilled  workers  needed  can  be  supplied. 

How  can  the  skilled  labor  be  provided  for  the  industrial 
development  of  Virginia?  Three  methods  are  possible:  (1)  the 
importation  of  skilled  workers  from  without  the  State;  (2)  the 

1    From  an  unpublished  study  by  Mr.  Cloyd  Marvin. 


184  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

training  of  skilled  workers  in  and  through  the  industrial  con- 
cerns; (3)  provision  for  industrial  education  in  the  schools  of 
the  State. 

(1).  The  importation  of  skilled  workers  from  without  the 
State  must  mean  that  industrial  opportunities  open  to  citizens 
of  Virginia  will  be  limited  for  the  most  part  to  the  unskilled  or 
at  best  the  semi-skilled  occupations.  Its  necessity  must  also 
seriously  condition  the  location  of  new  industrial  undertakings. 
The  textile,  leather,  metal,  and  other  industries  of  New  England 
were  not  located  there  because  of  the  proximity  of  raw  materials. 
Virginia  must  develop  her  own  body  of  skilled  workers. 

(2).  The  development  of  the  factory  system  has  practically 
eliminated  the  old  apprentice  system  and  the  industries  them- 
selves have  ceased  to  provide  proper  training  for  the  skilled 
trades.  In  Table  87  are  presented  figures  showing  the  kind  of 
industrial  training  provided  in  over  four  hundred  concerns 
involving  twelve  groups  of  trades  in  Virginia  in  1919.  Those 
figures  show  that  only  eleven  of  those  concerns  provide  even 
what  they  term  "apprenticeship  with  organized  instruction," 
and  that  the  only  trades  thus  involved  are  four  railroad  shops, 
six  ship  yards,  and  one  metal  trade.  The  fact  is  that  in  all  but 
an  insignificant  proportion  of  cases  trade  training  in  the  indus- 
tries of  Virginia  is  limited  to  the  incidental  and  hap-hazard 
instruction  which  the  "helper"  may  "pick  up"  as  assistant  to 
an  expert  or  from  the  occasional  criticism  of  a  busy  foreman. 
Further,  the  highly  subdivided  processes  of  modern  factory 
production  seldom  offer  an  opportunity  for  the  young  worker 
to  learn  more  than  one  small  part  of  any  trade. 

(3).  With  the  exception  of  a  few  privately  supported  insti- 
tutions for  negroes  (of  which  Hampton  Institute  is  the  most 
notable  example),  the  State  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
for  Negroes  at  Petersburg,  and  the  Virginia  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, industrial  education  is  practically  unknown  in  Virginia. 
The  State  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  schools  recommends 
courses  in  "manual  training  in  grades  five,  six,  and  seven." 
Needless  to  say  those  recommendations  are  followed  in  very, 
very  few  white  schools  and  would  make  very  little  contribution 
to  industrial  training  if  they  were  followed  more  extensively. 


Practical  Arts  Education  185 

They  limit  such  instruction  to  elementary  carpentry,  rafia 
work,  etc.  "Manual  training"  in  the  high  schools  of  the  State 
is  equally  ineffective. 

From  these  considerations  it  appears  clear:  (a)  that  the 
maintenance  and  development  of  industrial  efficiency  in  Vir- 
ginia must  be  dependent  on  a  supply  of  skilled  workers  pro- 
vided within  the  State;  (b)  that  the  industries  themselves 
cannot  be  relied  on  to  provide  the  necessary  skilled  workers; 
(c)  that  the  public  schools  of  the  State  have  not  heretofore 
made  any  effective  attempt  to  meet  this  problem.  They  must 
do  so  in  the  future  unless  Virginia  is  to  lose  its  present  great 
opportunities. 

Obviously  the  obligation  to  provide  properly  for  industrial 
education  rests  primarily  on  the  city  schools  of  the  State.  In  an 
attempt  to  estimate  their  responsibilities  and  opportunities  a 
survey  was  made  of  industrial  conditions  in  all  cities  of  the 
State,  except  Radford,  Buena  Vista,  Williamsburg,  Winchester 
(all  small  cities  and  with  few  industries)  and  Richmond,  the 
last  because  an  intensive  vocational  survey  was  made  there 
recently. 1  Those  figures  show  that  in  any  one  city  a  relatively  small 
number  of  trades  and  industries  engage  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  skilled  and  semi-skilled  workers  of  that  city.  The  trades 
involved  in  the  dominant  industries  of  any  city  should  indicate 
the  lines  along  which  industrial  education  should  first  be 
developed  in  the  city  schools. 

It  should  be  evident  that  the  variety  and  character  of  the 
important  industries  mentioned  in  Table  88  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  providing  appropriate  training  in  the  school  buildings. 
The  solution  should  be  found  in  the  inaguration  of  a  program 
of  part-time  cooperative  education  whereby  the  boy  spends  a 
part  of  his  time  in  the  school  and  a  part  in  the  shop  under  the 
guidance  of  skilled  workers  selected  on  the  basis  of  their  fitness 
to  train  pupils  in  the  special  trades  involved. 

This  is  the  plan  advocated  by  the  State  supervisor  of  indus- 
trial education  and  has  been  approved  by  several  industrial 
managers  in  the  course  of  this  survey.  It  should  be  adopted 
as  the  plan  to  be  followed  for  the  development  of  greatly  needed 
industrial  education  in  Virginia. 

1    See  note  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 


186  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1 .  That  elementary  instruction  in  agriculture  and  in  domestic 
arts  be  provided  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  of  every  rural 
school,  preferably  in  such  consolidated  junior  high  schools  as 
those  recommended  in  Chapter  XVI. 

2.  That  in  the  junior  high  school  every  girl  be  required  to 
take  at  least  one  course  in  domestic  arts,  wherever  and  whenever 
such  courses  are  offered. 

3.  That  at  least  one  high  school  in  each  county  of  the  State 
provide  a  department  of  vocational  agriculture  and  a  depart- 
ment for  specialized  instruction  in  domestic  arts,  operated  on 
the  Smith-Hughes  plan. 

4.  That  all  larger  cities,  especially  Alexandria,  Richmond, 
Norfolk,  Newport  News,  Portsmouth,  Petersburg,  Lynchburg 
and  Danville,  be  encouraged  to  extend  their  provisions  for 
commercial  and  clerical  education. 

5.  That  all  larger  cities  be  encouraged  to  develop  evening 
trade  courses  and  part-time  cooperative  courses  in  industrial 
training. 

Note — During  the  spring  of  1919  Mr.  R.  V.  Long,  State  Supervisor  of 
Trade  and  Industrial  Education,  in  co-operation  with  the  Virginia  Edu- 
cation Survey,  conducted  a  careful  investigation  of  the  industries  and 
trades  involving  skilled  and  semi-skilled  work  in  all  cities  of  Virginia 
except  Buena  Vista,  Radford,  Williamsburg,  Winchester  (small  cities 
having  few  industries)  and  Richmond,  the  last  mentioned  city  being 
omitted  because  an  intensive  vocational  survey  was  made  there  recently. 

The  purpose  of  this  industrial  survey  was  to  determine  for  each  city 
the  most  prominent  industries  and  trades  of  importance  for  industrial 
education  and  to  secure  some  information  concerning  the  number  of 
skilled  and  semi-skilled  workers  involved.  Information  was  secured  in 
part  through  direct  visitation  to  industrial  plants,  in  part  through 
reports  made  by  employment  managers  on  standard  forms,  and  in 
part  through  the  co-operation  of  chambers  of  commerce  and  local 
school  officials. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  secure  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  different 
trades  and  industries,  and  the  statistics  given  must  be  considered  as 
approximate  only.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine  the  proportions 
of  skilled,  semi-skilled,  and  unskilled  workers  because  of  the  varying 
standards  involved.  In  all  probability  the  figures  given  tend  to  exag- 
gerate the  proportion  of  workers  classified  as  skilled. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  present  in  full  the  findings  of  the  industrial 
survey.  They  should  be  published  in  a  special  bulletin  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SCHOOL  HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  EDUCATION 

IN  Virginia,  as  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  health 

of  children  has  been  neglected  seriously  in  the  public  schools. 
The  results  of  that  neglect  have  been  forced  on  our  attention 
recently  by  the  fact  that  more  than  one-quarter  of  all  young 
men  examined  in  the  war  draft  were  found  pyhsically  unfit  at 
ages  when  they  should  be  in  the  best  physical  condition. 

Any  system  of  education  is  radically  and  fundamentally 
unsound  which  does  not  make  careful  provision  for  the  health 
of  school  children,  and  for  the  development  of  physically  efficient 
citizens. 

How  does  Virginia  meet  this  need? 

In  this  chapter  an  attempt  is  made  to  answer  that  qeustion, 
with  reference  to  (i)  school  hygiene  and  sanitation;  (ii)  health 
teaching  and  physical  training  in  the  schools;  (iii)  medical 
inspection  and  health  supervision. 

i. — SCHOOL  HYGIENE  AND  SANITATION 

Proper  regard  for  hygiene  and  sanitation  in  school  buildings 
and  in  the  administration  of  schools  means  only  one  thing — 
safeguarding  the  health  of  children  in  the  schools  which  they 
are  compelled  to  attend.  Conversely,  disregard  of  school 
hygiene  and  sanitation  can  mean  only  one  thing — the  actual 
creation  of  physical  defects  by  institutions  under  public  control. 
Thus  inadequate  or  improperly  directed  lighting  not  only 
interferes  with  the  work  of  the  school  but  actually  produces 
eye  strain  and  actually  creates  or  intensifies  defects  in  vision  which 
permanently  inj  ure  the  child.  Thus  poor  ventilation  and  improper 
heating  produce  both  temporary  and  permanent  evils.  Thus 
unsanitary  toilets  become  centres  of  physical  and  moral  infec- 
tion, and  other  unhygienic  conditions  produce  results  equally 
as  bad.  It  should  always  be  remembered  that  children  are 
grouped  together  in  school  rooms  for  about  five  hours  a  day, 
and  that  school  conditions  are  far  different  from  ordinary  home, 
shop,  or  office  conditions. 


188  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  Survey  Staff  investigated  by  personal  visits  the  hygiene 
and  sanitation  of  about  six  hundred  non-city  schools  and  nearly 
all  city  schools.  Figures  showing  conditions  in  non-city  build- 
ings are  presented  in  Tables  91  and  92.  Essential  facts  are 
summarized  below. 

(1)  Lighting:  Provision  for  proper  lighting  involves  at 
least  five  factors :  (a)  adequacy  of  window  space ;  (b)  proper 
arrangement  of  windows;  (c)  proper  arrangement  of  seats  with 
reference  to  light;  (d)  provision  of  window  shades  to  control 
the  lighting;  (e)  provision  for  artificial  light  on  dark  days. 

Section  676  of  the  Revised  Code  of  Virginia  ordains  that  "all 
school  houses  shall  provide  for  the  admission  of  light  from  the 
left,  or  from  the  left  and  rear  of  the  pupils,  and  the  total  light 
area  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  floor  space." 
Those  provisions  of  the  law  are  ignored  in  at  least  four-fifths 
of  the  schools  of  Virginia.  More  than  eighty-eight  per  cent 
of  the  non-city  schools  visited  by  the  survey  staff  had  less  than 
twenty  per  cent  of  window  area  and  fully  that  proportion  of 
schools  did  not  provide  for  window  lighting  from  the  left  and 
rear  only. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  requirement  of  "at  least"  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  window  area  is  absurdly  high  for  Southern  schools. 
According  to  any  ordinarily  accepted  standards  a  minimum  of 
twenty  per  cent  of  window  area  is  amply  sufficient  for  the 
schools  of  Virginia. 

In  Tables  91  and  92  are  presented  figures  showing  propor- 
tions of  buildings  receiving  various  ratings  for  lighting.  Those 
figures  indicate  that,  as  measured  by  any  recognized  standard, 
one-quarter  of  all  non-city  white  schools  and  more  than  one- 
half  of  all  non-city  colored  schools  have  window  space  so 
insufficient  as  to  endanger  seriously  the  eyes  of  the  pupils.1 
Of  one-room  non-city  white  schools  more  than  two-fifths,  and 
of  one-room  non-city  colored  shcools  more  than  three-fifths, 
have  dangerously  insufficient  lighting.1 

Further,  windows  are  so  arranged  as  to  violate  recognized 
principles  seriously  in  more  than  one- third  of  all  non-city  white 
schools  and  in  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  non-city  colored 

1  Ratings  D  and  E — Window  area  less  than  fifteen  per  cent  of  the 
floor  area. 


School  Hygiene  and  Health  Education  189 

schools.1    This  is  true  in  nearly  three  quarters  of  all  one-room 
white  schools  and  in  nine-tenths  of  all  one-room  colored  schools.2 

These  defects  are  increased :  (a)  by  faulty  seating  arrangements 
in  about  one-quarter  of  all  non-city  white  schools,  in  more  than 
one-half  of  all  non-city  colored  schools,  in  nearly  two-fifths  of 
all  one-room  white  schools,  and  in  nearly  three-fifths  of  all 
one-room  colored  schools;  (b)  by  the  absence  of  window  shades 
or  practically  useless  window  shades  in  the  majority  of  non- 
city  schools;  and  (c)  by  the  lack  of  artificial  lights  in  most  such 
schools. 

These  conditions  are  intolerable.  Is  it  strange  that  nearly 
one-fifth  of  all  pupils  in  non-city  schools  have  defective  eye- 
sight?2 Careless  school  building  by  local  school  authorities 
in  despite  of  State  regulations  is  exacting  a  heavy  penalty  paid 
by  the  children  of  Virginia. 

(2)  Heating  and  Ventilation:  No  argument  should  be 
needed  to  show  the  importance  of  provision  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  heat  (in  cold  weather)  and  for  proper  ventilation  in 
rooms  containing  from  twenty  to  forty  pupils  for  five  hours  in 
the  day.  The  State  law  (Section  674  of  the  Revised  Code) 
ordains  that  "at  least  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  two 
hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  space"  shall  be  provided  "for  each 
pupil  to  be  accommodated  in  each  study  or  recitation  room," 
and  that  no  plans  shall  be  approved  "unless  provision  is  made 
therein  for  assuring  at  least  thirty  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  every 
minute  per  pupil,  and  the  facilities  for  exhausting  the  foul  and 
vitiated  air  therein  shall  be  positive  and  independent  of  atmos- 
pheric changes.  All  ceilings  shall  be  at  least  twelve  feet  in 
height."  These  provisions  are  ignored  in  fully  three-quarters 
of  all  non-city  schools  in  Virginia. 

In  Tables  91  and  92  are  presented  figures  showing  the  status 
of  heating  and  ventilation  in  nearly  six  hundred  non-city 
schools  of  Virginia.  Those  figures  indicate  that  heating  arrange- 
ments are  seriously  defective  in  more  than  one-quarter  of  all 
non-city  white  schools,  in  more  than  three-fifths  of  all  non-city 

1    Ratings  D  and  E — Defects  for  the  most  part  consisting  of  cross 
lighting. 
»    See  Table  93. 


190  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

colored  schools,  in  forty-five  per  cent,  of  all  one-room  white 
schools,  and  in  nearly  three-fourths  of  all  one-room  city  colored 
schools.1 

Those  figures  also  indicate  that  arrangements  for  ventilation 
are  either  entirely  lacking  or  seriously  defective  in  nearly  one- 
half  of  all  non-city  white  schools,  in  more  than  four-fifths  of  all 
non-city  colored  schools,  in  more  than  two-thirds  of  one-room 
white  schools,  and  in  nearly  nine-tenths  of  all  one-room  colored 
schools.2 

In  small  schools  (where  at  present  defects  are  most  common) 
proper  heating  and  ventilation  can  easily  and  inexpensively 
be  provided.  Nothing  but  ignorance  of  the  simplest  principles 
of  school  building  and  disregard  of  State  regulations  can  explain 
the  extent  of  the  serious  defects  found.  The  least  to  be  expected 
in  small  schools  is  provision  for  a  jacketed  stove  and  adequate 
inlets  and  outlets  for  air.  In  larger  schools  a  furnce  and  a 
complete  ventilation  system  should  be  provided. 

(3).  Water  Supply:  In  one  quarter  of  all  non-city  white 
schools,  in  more  than  one-third  of  all  non-city  colored  schools, 
in  about  three-tenths  of  all  one-room  white  schools,  and  in 
more  than  two-fifths  of  all  one-room  colored  schools  provision 
for  a  supply  of  water  for  drinking  is  very  unsatisfactory, 
according  to  any  reasonable  standard.*  Provision  of  water  for 
purposes  other  than  drinking  (e.g.  washing  after  use  of  the 
toilet  or  before  eating)  is  made  only  in  the  few  schools  which 
have  their  own  wells  or  other  sources  of  water  supply. 

(4).  Sanitary  Toilets:  Few  problems  connected  with  the 
management  of  school  buildings,  particularly  in  the  rural 
districts,  present  greater  difficulties  than  the  management  of 
toilets.  Section  676  of  the  Revised  Code  ordains  that  "Every 
school  board  shall  provide  at  least  two  suitable  and  convenient 
outhouses  or  water-closets  for  each  of  the  school  houses  under 
its  control,  unless  the  said  school  houses  have  suitable,  conve- 
nient and  sanitary  water  closets  erected  within  same.     Said 

1  Ratings  D  and  E — For  the  most  part  unjacketed  or  defective 
stoves. 

2  Ratings  D  and  E — D  for  seriously  defective  ventilation;  E  for 
entire  lack  of  provision  for  ventilation  except  by  open  windows. 

•  Ratings  D  and  E — D  for  unprotected  wells,  broken  pumps,  etc. ; 
E  for  practically  no  provision  for  an  adequate  water  supply. 


Toilet    West  Lexington.    Rockbridge  County. 


Toilet  — Salisbury    Colored  .     Northampton  County. 


"Girls'  Side  of  the  Woods"    Zuni  I  White).    Isle  of  Wight  County. 
HOW  THE  LAW  CONCERNING  OUTHOUSES  IS  OBSERVED  IN  MANY  CASES. 

Acts  of  Assembly,  1908,  page  266.  "Every  school  board  shall  provide  at  least  two 
suitable  and  convenient  outhouses  for  each  of  the  school  houses  under  its  control; 
*  *  *  said  outhouses  shall  be  entirely  separated,  each  from  the  other,  and  shall  have 
separate  means  of  access.  School  boards  shall  see  that  said  outhouse  are  kept  in  a  clean 
and  wholesome  condition." 


School  Hygiene  and  Health  Education  191 

outhouses  or  water-closets  shall  be  entirely  separated,  each 
from  the  other,  and  shall  have  separate  means  of  access.  School 
boards  shall  see  that  said  outhouses  or  water-closets  are  kept 
clean  and  in  wholesome  condition."  Most  schools  meet  this  law 
to  the  extent  of  having  two  toilets  of  some  sort.  In  most  non- 
city  schools,  however,  it  would  require  a  wide  stretch  of  the 
imagination  to  consider  them  "suitable,"  "sanitary,"  or  "kept 
in  a  clean  and  wholesome  condition." 

In  Tables  91  and  92  are  presented  figures  showing  the  char- 
acter of  the  toilet  facilities  and  the  condition  of  toilets  in  non- 
city  schools  in  Virginia.     Those  figures  indicate  that  toilet 
facilities  are  seriously  defective  or  lacking  in  nearly  one-third 
of  all  non-city  white  schools,  in  more  than  one-half  of  all  non- 
city  colored  schools,  in  more  than  one-third  of  one-room  white 
white  schools,  and  in  nearly  three-fifths  of  all  one-room  colored 
schools.1     They  also  indicate    that    the  condition  of   toilets 
is   markedly    insanitary    in   nearly   one-half   of   all  non-city 
white  schools,  in  more  than  one-half  of  all  non-city  colored 
schools,    in    about    forty-five    per    cent,    of   one-room    white 
schools,  and  in  nearly  three-fifths  of  all  one-room  colored  schools. 
Many  other  factors  of  hygiene  and  sanitation  are  involved, 
but  cannot  be  discussed  here.     The  factors  considered  above 
give  sufficient  indication  that  school  hygiene  and  sanitation 
are  seriously  neglected  in  Virginia.    The  plain  mandates  of  the 
State  laws,  of  the  regulation  of  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
and   the    regulations    of    the    State    Board    of    Health2    are 
ignored   in    the    great    majority    of    schools.      With    a    few 
modifications    those  laws    and    regulations  are    sufficient    to 
guarantee  reasonably  satisfactory  hygiene  and  sanitation  in  the 
schools  of  the  State,  if  they  are  enforced. 

Failure  to  ensure  the  enforcement  of  those  laws  and  regula- 
tions is  to  be  charged  in  part  against  the  State  Department  of 
Education,  against  division  superintendents,  against  county 
and  district  boards,  and  against  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
The  fault  goes  deeper  than  that,  however.    Before  the  situation 


1  Ratings  D  and  E — D  representing  toilets  which  are  seriously 
defective  but  which  could  be  repaired  and  made  sanitary;  E  repre- 
senting toilets  either  lacking  or  which  should  be  abandoned. 

2  See  Virginia  School  Laws,  pp.  45-49. 


192  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

can  be  materially  improved  several  matters  of  fundamental 
importance  must  be  attended  to:  (a)  communities  must  be 
awakened  to  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  school  hygiene 
and  sanitation;  (b)  teachers  must  be  trained  to  understand  the 
problems  involved ;  (c)  adequate  supervision  must  be  provided 
in  each  county;  (d)  proper  provision  must  be  made  to  meet 
the  needs  of  health  inspection  and  supervision  as  suggested  in 
the  last  part  of  this  chapter;  (e)  the  State  Department  of  Educa- 
tion and  the  State  Board  of  Health  must  be  given  sufficient 
assistance  to  attend  to  the  duties  placed  upon  them. 

ii. — HEALTH  INSTRUCTION  AND  PHYSICAL  TRAINING 

By  section  702  of  the  Revised  Code  of  Virginia  the  teaching 
of  physiology  and  hygiene  is  required  in  every  free  public 
school  of  the  State,  and  each  teacher  is  required  to  devote  not 
less  than  thirty  minutes  per  month  to  instruction  dealing  with 
the  prevention  of  accidents.  These  are  the  only  legal  provisions 
for  health  instructions  and  training  in  the  public  schools. 

In  the  State  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools  excel- 
lent provision  is  made  for  the  health  instruction  in  each  grade. 
Unfortunately,  however,  actual  instruction  in  that  field  is 
limited  to  the  most  perfunctory  and  unskilled  teaching  in  the 
majority  of  non-city  schools.  In  one-teacher  and  two-teacher 
schools,  particularly,  the  crowded  program  and  the  quality  of 
teachers  employed  make  health  instruction  relatively  ineffec- 
tive.1 

Physical  education  through  physical  exercise  is  not  even 
mentioned  in  the  State  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary 
Schools.  Here  and  there  in  a  few  schools  or  in  a  few  districts 
energetic  and  capable  teachers  and  superintendents  have  organ- 
ized a  program  of  physical  exercise.  Those  instances,  however, 
are  few  and  far  between.  For  the  non-city  districts  of  the  State 
as  a  whole  physical  training  through  exercise  is  almost  totally 
neglected. 

The  old  high  school  course  of  study  made  no  mention  of 
physical  training.  The  new  high-school  course  has  recognized 
its  importance  and  makes  definite,  though  somewhat  limited, 

See  Chapter  V. 


School  Hygiene  and  Health  Education  193 

provision.  At  present  few  high  schools,  even  in  the  cities  of 
the  State,  make  anything  like  adequate  provision  for  the  phys- 
ical training  of  their  pupils. 

Nothing  short  of  one  full  period  (at  least  thirty  minutes  in 
the  clear)  of  physical  exercise  per  school  day  for  each  pupil  can 
be  considered  at  all  satisfactory.  Preferably  such  exercise 
should  be  in  the  open  air  and  in  Virginia,  fortunately,  that  is 
possible  for  the  parger  part  of  the  school  year.  This  means 
that  schools  should  have  sufficient  ground  space  (cf.  chapter 
XVII  and  Table  109).  Larger  schools  should  supplement  this 
by  provision  for  gymnasiums. 

In  smaller  schools  provision  for  physical  training  may  be 
made  through  supervised  play.  In  larger  schools  competent 
instructors  should  be  provided  to  direct  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gram of  physical  training. 

Hi. — MEDICAL  INSPECTION  AND  SUPERVISION 

During  the  school  year  1914-15  physicians  and  officials  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health  conducted  a  medical  inspection  of  the 
school  children  in  seven  counties  and  two  cities  of  Virginia. 
The  results  of  that  inspection  are  shown  in  Table  93.  From 
the  figures  there  presented  it  can  be  seen  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  school  children  in  Virginia  suffer  from  one  or  more 
physical  defects  which  lead  to  excessive  absence  from  school, 
poor  work,  failure,  and  retardation  in  the  school,  and  serious 
handicaps  throughout  life.  A  few  of  the  more  important  facts 
disclosed  are  summarized  below. 

(1).  About  twenty-three  per  cent  of  all  non-city  school 
children  suffer  from  defective  vision,  seriously  interfereing  with 
their  school  work.  All  such  defects  call  for  medical  attention 
and  most  are  easily  remediable.  As  pointed  out  in  an  earlier 
part  of  this  chapter  through  bad  provision  for  lighting  many 
schools  actually  create  or  at  least  intensify  such  defects.1 

(2).  More  than  three-fifths  of  all  the  school  children  exam- 
ined had  defective  teeth,  easily  remediable  by  the  dentist's  care. 

1  Provisions  of  Section  724  of  the  Revised  Code  for  the  care  of 
pupils'  vision  and  hearing  have  been  met  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  but  have  been  neglected  by  the  majority  of  teachers. 


194  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(3).  From  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  all  school  children  in 
Virginia  suffer  serious  throat  conditions,  one-half  of  the  non- 
city  children  and  nearly  two-thirds  of  city  children  suffering 
from  enlarged  or  diseased  tonsils,  and  more  than  one-third  of 
non-city  children  and  two-fifths  of  city  children  suffering  from 
adenoid  growths. 

(4).  A  great  majority  of  the  school  children  examined  had 
previously  suffered  from  one  or  more  of  the  commoner  conta- 
gious diseases,  and  had  lost  varying  amounts  of  schooling 
thereby.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  Section  1529 
of  the  Code  provides  for  the  compulsory  vaccination  of  school 
pupils,  but  permits  suspension  of  the  law  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
the  school  board  of  any  city  or  county.  Division  superintendents 
report  that  in  1918-19  this  vaccination  law  is  "enforced"  in  24 
counties  "neglected"  in  49  counties,  and  "suspended"  in  16 
counties. 

Unfortunately  financial  limitations  prevented  the  Education 
Commission  from  including  in  its  survey  an  investigation  of  the 
physical  condition  of  school  children  in  1918-19.  Since  the 
time  of  the  medical  inspection  referred  to  above  many  cities 
and  a  few  counties  have  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
medical  inspection  and  supervision  of  school  children.  For 
the  State  as  a  whole,  however,  and  particularly  in  the  counties, 
the  situation  apparently  remains  much  as  it  was  when  the 
statistics  in  Table  93  were  compiled. 

During  the  years  1910  to  1914  an  extensive  campaign  against 
hookworm  diseases  was  carried  on  in  Virginia  in  cooperation 
with  the  Rockefeller  Hookworm  Commission.  Approximately 
one  hundred  thousand  children  were  examined.  In  Table  94 
are  presented  figures  showing  for  fifty  counties  the  percentages 
of  children  of  school  age  examined  having  hookworm  infection. 
Those  figures  indicate  the  facts  and  suggest  the  comments 
given  below. 

(1).  In  ten  counties  of  the  State,  at  the  time  of  the  examina- 
tion, one  or  two  children  in  every  ten  of  school  age  were  infected 
with  hookworm ;  in  ten  counties  two  or  three  in  every  ten  chil- 
dren were  thus  infected;  in  nine  counties  three  or  four  children 
in  every  ten  were  thus  infected;  in  seven  counties  nearly  one- 


School  Hygiene  and  Health  Education  195 

half  of  the  children  were  thus  infected;  in  two  counties  five  or 
six  in  every  ten  children  were  thus  infected;  and  in  two  coun- 
ties two-thirds  of  the  children  were  thus  infected. 

(2).  These  children  are  "sickly"  and  require  no  small  degree 
of  medical  attention.  In  most  cases,  however,  parents  depend 
on  useless  or  dangerous  ' 'medicines. ' '  Five  dollars  a  year  would 
be  a  low  estimate  for  the  average  amount  expended  for  such 
"medicine." 

(3).  Children  infected  with  hookworm  are  unable  to  learn  as 
fast  as  healthy  children.  They  are  frequently  mistaken  by 
teachers  for  dull  children,  or  for  children  mentally  defective. 
It  is  probable  that  children  suffering  from  hookworm  disease 
usually  take  twice  as  long  to  progress  through  a  grade  as 
healthy  pupils,  and  for  the  most  part  progress  about  half  as 
far  in  the  school  before  their  schooling  ends.  Their  education 
adds  greatly  to  school  costs,  they  lose  no  small  part  of  the 
education  provided,  and  their  backwardness  interferes  with 
the  progress  of  any  class  in  which  they  are  placed. 

(4).  With  a  competent  physician  the  diagnosis  of  hookworm 
disease  is  simple,  its  treatment  easy,  and  cure  almost  certain. 
The  conditions  previously  found  and,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
still  persisting,  admit  of  relatively  easy  correction  with  proper 
medical  inspection  and  supervision. 

The  importance  of  provision  for  medical  inspection  and 
supervision  in  Virginia  was  recognized  in  part  by  the  passage 
of  the  West  Law  in  1918.  That  law  (a)  authorizes  the  appro- 
priation of  county  funds  for  the  inspection  of  school  children 
and  the  employment  of  school  physicians  and  nurses,  and  (b) 
requires  each  normal  school  of  the  State  to  provide  a  course  in 
preventive  medicine  and  the  medical  inspection  of  school  chil- 
dren, which  course  must  be  successfully  completed  by  every 
normal  school  student  as  a  prerequisite  for  graduation. 

What  the  effect  of  this  law  may  be  cannot,  of  course,  be 
prophesied.  It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  that  any  permissive 
law  can  meet  the  imperative  needs  of  the  situation.  In  all 
probability  the  needs  of  the  situation  will  not  be  met  in  counties 
where  it  is  most  serious  unless  the  law  is  made  mandatory 
instead  of  permissive  and  until  at  least  one  school  nurse  is 
required  for  every  county  and  city  in  the  State. 


196  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

An  ideal  plan  for  medical  inspection  and  supervision  would 
require  for  each  county  or  large  city  (1)  at  least  one  full-time 
health  officer  (physician)  in  charge  of  health  work  in  the  schools, 
(2)  as  many  school  nurses  as  would  be  necessary  so  that  each 
school  could  be  visited  at  least  once  a  month,1  (3)  at  least  one 
school  dentist.  How  nearly  the  State  of  Virginia  can  approach 
that  program  at  present  depends  on  the  readiness  of  her  people 
to  safeguard  with  reasonable  care  their  greatest  asset — the 
health  of  their  children.  From  an  economic  viewpoint  the  State 
could  make  no  better  investment,  even  with  respect  to  present 
costs. 

Until  the  State  is  ready  to  adopt  such  a  plan  it  must  make 
the  best  use  it  can  of  available  resources  and  possible  laws. 
The  minimum  to  be  considered  should  be  such  provision  as 
would  permit  the  medical  inspection  of  school  children  at  least 
once  a  year  by  competent  persons.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  mere  inspection  can  produce  only  information 
and  advice.  Medical  inspection  without  medical  supervision 
and  provision  for  medical  care  must  always  be  like  a  machine 
without  an  engine  for  power. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  provision  be  made  for  hygienic  and  sanitary  school 
houses  as  recommended  in  Chapter  XVII. 

2.  That  provision  be  made  for  the  whole  time  services  of  a 
competent  person,  who,  working  under  the  joint  auspices  of  the 
Department  of  Education  and  the  State  Department  of  Health, 
shall  have  general  supervision  of  school  hygiene  and  sanitation, 
physical  education,  and  medical  inspection  and  supervision  in 
the  public  schools  of  the  State. 

3.  That  the  present  (West)  law  be  so  amended  as  to  require 
that  each  superintendency  division  (county  or  city)  employ 
the  full-time  services  of  at  least  one  school  nurse  or  schoo 
physician. 

4.  That  the  Board  of  Education  require  provision  for  phys- 
ical training  in  the  program  of  every  school  in  the  State. 

1  At  present  six  counties  in  the  State  provide  at  least  one  school 
nurse.    Norfolk  county  provides  three. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
NEGRO  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

VEGROES  constitute  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  popula- 
tion in  Virginia.  According  to  the  latest  federal  census 
there  were  671,076  negroes  in  the  State  in  1910.  Likewise 
the  colored  school  population  is  approximately  one-third  of 
the  total  school  population,  there  being  222,258  colored  children 
of  school  age  at  the  time  of  the  latest  school  census  in  1915. 

The  greater  part  of  the  colored  population  is  in  the  South- 
side  and  Tidewater  section  of  the  State.  West  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains  no  county  has  a  colored  population  as  large 
as  twenty-five  per  cent  of  its  total  population,  and  few  of  the 
western  counties  have  a  colored  population  as  large  as  ten  per 
cent  of  their  total  population.  Further,  in  the  western  coun- 
ties of  the  State  the  colored  population  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  cities,  towns,  and  mining  centers,  whereas  in  the 
East  it  is  predominantly  rural.  It  averages  seventy-six  per 
cent  rural  for  the  State,  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  negroes  con- 
stitute one-third  of  all  persons  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
As  farmers,  renting  and  owning  land,  they  control  2,233,833 
acres :  as  farm  laborers  they  cultivate  much  more. 

Economic  Aspect  of  Negro  Education:  The  education  of  a 
group  composing  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  population  of 
the  state  necessarily  has  an  important  economic  bearing.  It 
is  a  well  accepted  principle  that  the  wealth  of  any  country  or 
community  is  more  dependent  upon  the  character,  skill  and 
general  intelligence  of  its  workers  than  upon  mere  natural 
advantages.  The  cities  are  realizing  that  the  negro  is  the  back- 
bone of  the  labor  supply  in  many  industries  which  are  vital  to 
their  prosperity  and  growth,  and  they  are  showing  increasing 
concern  over  the  housing,  recreation  and  school  facilities  of  the 
colored  people,  for  good  wages  alone  will  not  make  a  contented 
and  efficient  working  population.  Industrial  plants  that  have 
given  their  colored  workers  a  better  chance  have  found  them- 
selves repaid  in  quality  of  output,  in  loyalty  and  steadiness  of 


198  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

their  employees.  Mr.  Homer  L.  Ferguson,  President  of  the 
Newport  News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry  Dock  Company,  and  of 
the  United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  an  address  before 
the  Richmond  Chamber  of  Commerce,  June  25th,  1919,  urged 
that  Virginia  be  careful  to  encourage  its  Negro  labor,  which  in 
his  judgment  represented  a  great  asset  to  the  state.  Mr  Fer- 
guson is  qualified  to  speak  on  this  subject,  for  his  company 
employs  over  4,000  Negroes. 

The  Northern  cities  are  now  bidding  for  Negro  labor,  and 
the  superior  school  advantages  they  offer  have  something  to  do 
with  the  general  migration.  Better  school  facilities  would  go  a 
long  way  in  encouraging  the  colored  people  to  remain  in  the 
South.  The  Report  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor 
on  Negro  Migration  in  1916-17  shows  that  fewer  Negroes  left 
communities  in  the  South  where  good  schools  were  provided 
for  their  children. 

If  this  is  an  important  matter  for  the  cities,  it  is  much  more 
so  for  the  counties  where  three-fourths  of  the  Negroes  live  and 
where  they  constitute  one-third  of  all  persons  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  having  charge  of  more  than  two  million  acres 
of  land.  No  one  familiar  with  the  state  needs  to  be  told  that 
this  land  is  for  the  most  part  cultivated  in  a  very  poor  and  inef- 
ficient fashion.  Methods  of  tradition  prevail  and  the  fertility 
of  the  soil,  the  greatest  natural  resource  of  the  state,  has  suf- 
fered waste.  No  movement  would  tend  more  to  the  prosperity 
and  economic  well-being  of  the  State  than  the  increase  of  intel- 
ligence and  skill  on  the  part  of  this  group.  The  prosperity  of 
the  colored  farmers  means  the  prosperity  of  the  white  farmers 
as  well,  the  prosperity  of  merchants  and  manufacturers,  bankers 
and  business  men  of  the  entire  state.  It  means  increasing  the 
taxable  wealth  and  building  up  the  very  foundation  for  good 
schools,  good  roads,  churches,  and  all  community  undertakings 
for  the  general  welfare  of  the  people. 

Health:  The  death  rate  among  Negroes  is  almost  twice  as 
high  as  that  among  whites  and  it  is  clear  that  little  headway 
can  be  made  in  bringing  under  control  the  preventable  diseases 
such  as  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  malaria  and  hookworm 
disease  until  the  colored  people  can  be  brought  to  cooperate 
with  all  the  agencies  of  the  state  for  the  promotion  of  public 


Negro  Education  199 

health.  The  work  of  the  supervising  industrial  teachers  and 
the  Negro  Organization  Society  gives  evidence  that  they  are 
willing  to  help  to  the  extent  of  their  knowledge.  A  colored 
man  sick  with  a  communicable  disease  is  a  source  of  danger 
to  the  entire  community.    Disease  draws  no  color  line. 

The  colored  third  of  the  population  of  Virginia  must  be 
trained  so  as  to  become  economically  productive;  to  become 
healthy  enough  to  eliminate  present  unhygienic  conditions  and 
safeguard  themselves  and  their  white  neighbors  from  disease; 
to  become  morally  and  socially  sound,  and  to  supply  their  own 
trained  leaders  in  the  ministry,  in  teaching,  and  other  fields 
on  which  their  racial  integrity  and  their  living  depend. 

In  this  chapter  an  attempt  is  made  to  analyze  the  present 
status  of  Negro  education  in  Virginia  and  to  suggest  certain 
measures  for  its  administration. 

THE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  NEGRO  EDUCATION  IN  VIRGINIA 

Various  factors  involved  in  an  analysis  of  the  present  status 
of  Negro  education  in  Virginia  have  been  considered  in  previous 
chapters  of  this  report.  Important  facts  may  be  summarized 
here. 

(a).  Provision  for  Schools:  Of  all  colored  pupils  in  the  non- 
city  schools  of  Virginia  about  eighty-five  per  cent  are  enrolled 
in  one-teacher  and  two-teacher  schools.  Even  in  counties 
where  the  colored  population  is  greatest  by  far  the  largest  pro- 
portion of  colored  children  have  no  educational  opportunities 
other  than  those  offered  by  the  one-teacher  school.  In  non- 
city  districts  only  13,567  colored  pupils  were  enrolled  in  schools 
having  more  than  two  teachers  each  in  1916-17,  while  95,052 
colored  pupils  were  enrolled  in  one-teacher  and  two-teacher 
schools.  Outside  of  the  cities  there  are  very  few  colored  schools 
employing  more  than  two  teachers. 

Even  for  the  limited  type  of  education  provided,  the  schools 
are  generally  inadequate.  The  practice  of  employing  one 
teacher  for  two  schools  still  survives  in  a  few  districts.  In  at 
least  two  counties  a  member  of  the  survey  staff  found  this  to 
be  the  case  with  reference  to  a  group  of  Negro  schools.  In  one 
case  he  was  told  that  the  practice  obtained  of  running  a  Negro 
school  every  other  year  or  every  once  in  a  while.    This  is  not 


200  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

typical,  but  it  represents  the  extreme  of  indifference  which 
obtains  to  a  certain  extent  in  nearly  every  county  with  a  large 
colored  population.  Illiteracy  flourishes  in  such  communities 
and  holds  down  the  average  ot  the  entire  state.  The  deficiencies 
of  the  Negro  public  schools  cannot  be  excused  on  the  ground 
that  private  schools  are  maintained  by  church  or  philanthropic 
agencies. 

High  Schools:  Few  high  schools  are  provided  for  colored 
children.  In  the  entire  state  there  are  only  three  colored  high 
schools  accredited  for  four  grades  of  standard  work — the  Arm- 
strong High  School,  Richmond,  the  Booker  T.  Washington 
High  School  of  Norfolk  city,  and  the  Mt.  Hermon  High  School 
of  Norfolk  county.1  Three-year  high  schools  for  colored  pupils 
are  maintained  in  Lynchburg,  Petersburg,  and  Danville. 
Portsmouth  will  house  its  high  school  next  year  in  a  new  build- 
ing costing  $80,000.  Petersburg  is  also  building  a  new  colored 
school  costing  $100,000.  This  will  be  shared  by  the  high  school 
and  a  grammar  school.  A  few  other  cities  have  made  some 
slight  provision  for  the  high  school  education  of  colored-children, 
but  in  most  of  them  high  school  education  of  colored  children 
is  almost  entirely  lacking,  or  negligible  in  the  opportunities 
supplied. 

According  to  the  High  School  Report  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education  for  1917-18,  only  two  colored  high  schools 
outside  of  the  cities  offered  as  many  as  twelve  units  (three 
grades)  of  work  of  standard  value,  and  those  two  schools — 
the  Caroline  County  Training  School,  and  the  Mt.  Hermon 
High  School  in  Norfolk  county,  enrolled  91  pupils  in  the  high 
school  grades.  According  to  the  same  report  the  colored  high 
schools  of  Richmond,  Norfolk  and  Lynchburg  enrolled  974 
pupils. 

County  Training  Schools:  With  the  single  exception  of  the 
Mt.  Hermon  High  School  in  Norfolk  county,  no  high  school 
work  for  colored  children  is  done  in  any  of  the  non-city  districts 
of  the  state  except  in  the  County  Training  Schools,  encouraged 
and  in  part  supported  by  the  Slater  (non-public)  fund  and  by 
funds  supplied  by  the  General  Education  Board. 


1    The  Mount  Hermon  High  School  became  a  part  of  the  Portsmouth 
City  school  system  during  the  session  of  1918-19. 


Negro  Education  201 

Eighteen  of  these  schools  have  now  been  established  and  their 
development  is  one  of  the  most  promising  movements  in  Negro 
education.  The  aim  is  to  establish  a  good  central  rural  school, 
sometimes  by  consolidation,  offering  thorough  work  in  the  ele- 
mentary grades,  and  from  two  to  four  years  of  high  school 
work,  including  the  industries  having  to  do  with  the  country 
home  and  farm.  A  simple  course  in  teacher  training  is  offered 
in  the  highest  grade.  A  typical  plant  consists  of  a  class-room 
building,  a  work  shop,  a  teachers'  home,  and  perhaps  a  small 
dormitory  for  boarding  students.  Most  of  the  schools  repre- 
sent only  a  simple  and  crude  beginning  and  will  require  several 
years  to  work  up  to  the  high  school  grades. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  at  present  the  ratio  of  pupils  in 
high  school  grades  should  be  the  same  for  the  white  and  colored 
population,  for  the  time  a  pupil  can  spend  in  school  depends  on 
the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  the  home  from  which  he 
comes,  as  well  as  upon  the  general  desire  for  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  the  student,  and  colored  people  are  not  as  favorably 
situated  as  white  people  in  this  respect.  Most  of  the  rural  high 
schools  for  white  children  have  been  established  within  the 
last  fifteen  years,  and  the  time  is  now  ripe  to  do  more  for  the 
high  school  training  of  colored  children.  One  hundred  thirty- 
three  pupils  enrolled  in  high  schools1  in  the  counties  out  of 
a  school  population  of  182,969  colored  children  is  a  mere  beginning. 

The  principle  of  racial  integrity  is  fundamental  in  the  minds 
of  both  races.  It  must  be  recognized  that  if  the  Negro  race  is 
to  be  sufficient  to  itself,  it  must  produce  its  own  teachers  and 
leaders.  The  colored  people  in  the  country  cannot  have  a 
trained  ministry  or  trained  leaders  in  education  and  industry 
with  the  limited  educational  facilities  now  afforded.  The 
higher  institutions  cannot  perform  their  proper  functions  unless 
secondary  schools  are  provided  in  the  state  as  a  connecting  link 
between  them  and  the  elementary  schools. 

(b).  The  School  Term:2  In  1917-18  non-city  schools 
for  colored  children  were  open  on  the  average  of  six  months, 
while  white  schools  of  the  same  class  were  open  on  the  average 
more  than  seven  months.  In  fifty-five  counties  the  average 
length  of  the  term  for  colored  schools  was  six  months  or  less; 

1    Including  county  training  schools. 
>    See  Chapter  II  and  Tables  VI-VIII. 


202  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

in  ten  counties  the  county  wide  averages  were  five  months 
or  less;  in  one  county  it  was  four  months;  and  in  one  county  it 
was  3.2  months.  In  nearly  one-third  of  230  non-city  colored 
schools,  individually  examined,  the  school  term  was  five  months 
or  less  in  1917-18.  Particularly  significant  is  the  fact  that  the 
shortest  terms  for  colored  schools  are  commonly  found  in 
counties  and  districts  having  the  largest  colored  population. 

(c).  Enrolment  and  Attendance:1  Less  than  two-thirds  of 
the  colored  children  "of  school  age"  are  enrolled  in  school. 
Three-quarters  of  the  white  children  "of  school  age"  are 
enrolled.  The  status  of  colored  school  enrolment  is  now 
approximately  what  it  was  in  1890  as  measured  by  the  ratio 
of  enrolment  to  total  colored  population  or  to  colored  school 
population.2 

The  per  cent  of  colored  school  population  in  average  daily 
attendance  at  present  is  about  37:  for  whites  it  is  about  52. 
In  sixty  counties  of  the  state  the  per  cent  of  colored  school 
population  in  average  daily  attendance  is  35  or  less,  nine  coun- 
ties having  a  record  of  twenty  per  cent  or  less.  -For  white 
children,  three  counties  have  a  record  of  35  per  cent  or  less 
(none  under  31  per  cent).3 

For  colored  pupils  enrolled  the  per  cent  in  average  daily 
attendance  is  about  63 :  for  white  pupils  enrolled,  the  per  cent 
in  average  daily  attendance  is  about  67  or  68.  On  every  day 
that  the  schools  are  open  more  than  one-third  of  the  colored 
pupils  are  absent  and,  as  a  result,  colored  pupils  lose  on  the 
average  more  than  one-third  of  the  schooling  provided.  In 
sixteen  counties  of  the  state  (for  the  most  part  those  with  the 
largest  colored  population)  colored  pupils,  through  poor  atten- 
dance, lose,  on  the  average,  more  than  one-half  of  the  meagre 
education  provided.  One  fourth  of  218  non-city  colored  schools 
individually  examined  have  a  record  of  less  than  fifty  per  cent 
for  average  daily  attendance. 

(d).  Retardation  and  Elimination:*  The  story  of  public 
education  for  Negroes  in  Virginia  is  told  by  the  facts  presented 
in  Chapter  IV,  and  the  figures  presented  in  Tables  15ff.  Briefly 
summarized  they  are  as  follows: 

»  See    Chapter    III    and    Tables    11-14. 

«  See  Table  12. 

»  See  Table  13. 

*  See  Chapter  IV  and  Tables  15  ff. 


Negro  Education  203 

1.  In  non-city  schools  colored  pupils  in  each  grade  are  on 
the  average  two  years  older  than  the  Virginia  standard  ages 
for  those  grades,  and  a  year  to  a  year  and  one-half  older  than 
white  children  of  the  same  grades. 

2.  In  non-city  schools  eighty  out  of  every  hundred  colored 
pupils  are  older  than  they  should  be  for  the  grades  in  which 
they  are  located.  In  city  schools  fifty-five  out  of  every  hundred 
colored  pupils  are  thus  over-age  for  their  grades. 

3.  In  non-city  schools  seventy-five  or  seventy-six  out  of 
each  hundred  colored  pupils  have  spent  in  school  one  or  more 
years  in  excess  of  the  time  they  should  have  spent  there  in  order 
to  reach  the  grades  in  which  they  are  found.  In  cities  the  corre- 
sponding figures  are  fifty-eight  out  of  every  hundred  colored 
pupils. 

4.  Eighty-six  per  cent  of  colored  pupils  in  non-city  schools 
are  not  older  than  fourteen.  Ninety-one  per  cent  of  colored 
pupils  in  city  schools  are  not  older  than  fourteen. 

5.  In  non-city  schools  99.5  per  cent  of  all  colored  pupils 
are  found  in  the  elementary  school:  fifty-seven  per  cent  are 
found  in  the  "primer,"  first,  and  second  grades. 

6.  The  age-grade  distribution  of  colored  pupils  in  non-city 
schools  shows  a  situation  which  cannot  be  described  otherwise 
than  as  chaotic.  In  most  schools  grading  is  almost  totally 
lacking. 

7.  Colored  pupils  begin  to  leave  school  in  large  numbers 
after  four  years  (not  four  grades)  of  school  attendance.  Cer- 
tainly not  more  than  fifty  per  cent  attend  school  for  more  than 
seven  years  (not  seven  grades) . 

8.  Colored  pupils  leave  school  in  large  numbers  by  the  fifth 
grade.  By  the  seventh  grade  four-fifths  of  all  colored  pupils 
have  left  non-city  schools  and  more  than  three-fifths  have  left 
the  city  schools. 

(e).  The  Teaching  Force1:  As  a  body,  the  Negro  teachers 
of  Virginia  manifest  an  earnestness  of  purpose,  a  sense  of 
social  responsibility,  and  an  eagerness  to  perform  their  duties 
properly,  which  leave  little  to  be  desired.     They  are  conscientious 


*    See  Chapter  VII. 


204  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

and  self  -sacrificing  workers,  handicapped,  however,  by  inadequate 
education  and  training,  by  inadequate  equipment,  and  by 
inadequate  financial  resources,  to  such  an  extent  that  teaching 
in  all  but  a  few  colored  schools  is  at  a  very  low  level. 

1.  In  most  parts  of  the  state  the  number  of  colored  teachers 
employed  is  very  inadequate.  In  more  than  one-half  of  the 
state  the  county  wide  averages  ranged  from  one  teacher  em- 
ployed for  every  seventy  colored  children  of  school  age  to  one 
teacher  for  every  196  colored  children  of  school  age.  In  seven- 
teen counties  the  record  was  one  colored  teacher  employed  for 
100  to  196  colored  pupils  of  school  age.  Further,  in  more  than 
one-half  of  the  state  the  county  wide  averages  ranged  from 
forty-one  to  one  hundred  colored  pupils  enrolled  for  each  teacher 
employed.  Finally,  in  sixteen  counties  the  county  wide  averages 
ranged  from  thirty-one  to  sixty-five  colored  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance  for  each  colored  teacher  employed.  Many  indi- 
vidual schools  have  totally  impossible  records,  the  extreme 
example  found  by  the  Survey  Staff  being  a  one-teacher  school 
having  110  pupils  enrolled  and  eighty-five  pupils  present  on 
the  day  of  visit  in  a  room  seventeen  and  one-half  feet  by  twenty- 
three  feet. 

2.  Colored  teachers  as  a  body  have  inadequate  education 
and  training.  In  non-city  schools  more  than  one-third  have 
never  received  an  education  of  two  grades  of  high  school  work 
or  less,  one-half  have  never  received  an  education  of  more  than 
three  grades  of  high  school  work,  and  more  than  three-fourths 
have  never  received  an  education  above  that  equivalent  to  a 
four-year  high  school  course.  Only  one-fifth  have  ever  received 
an  education  in  training  equivalent  to  one  or  more  years  of 
college  or  normal  school. 

3.  The  inadequate  qualifications  of  colored  teachers  are 
also  shown  by  the  certificates  which  they  hold.  Of  923  colored 
teachers  whose  certificates  were  examined,  more  than  one-fifth 
held  local  permits  more  than  one-quarter  Second  Grade  Certifi- 
cates, nearly  one-fifth  First  Grade  Certificates — in  all  two- 
thirds  holding  certificates  indicating  very  unsatisfactory  quali- 
fications,— while  only  three  per  cent  held  "professional" 
certificates. 


Negro  Education  205 

4.  In  1917-18  the  average  monthly  pay  of  colored  teachers 
was  about  $30  and  the  average  annual  pay  about  $183.  In 
more  than  one-half  of  the  state  the  county  wide  averages  for 
the  annual  pay  of  colored  teachers  was  less  than  $176;  in  more 
than  one-fourth  of  the  state  it  was  less  than  $151 ;  in  six  counties  it 
was  less  than  $126;  and  in  one  county  it  was  less  than  $100. 
Salaries  have  been  increased  during  the  past  year.  The  increase 
in  pay,  however,  is  far  from  equaling  the  increase  in  the 
cost  of  living,  even  with  the  most  humble  standards.  Neither 
has  the  pay  of  colored  teachers  increased  to  meet  the  competi- 
tion of  other  occupations.  Unskilled  labor  receives  better  pay 
than  colored  teachers  in  Virginia. 

5.  With  its  present  colored  population  Virginia  needs  about 
four  thousand  colored  teachers.  About  three  thousand  are 
now  employed,  and  of  that  number  not  one-quarter  are  reason- 
ably w(  11  prepared  for  their  duties. 

Facilities  for  the  training  of  colored  teachers  in  Virginia  are 
woefully  inadequate.  The  supply  of  teachers  still  depends 
chiefly  on  institutions  not  maintained  by  public  funds.  Three 
hundred  and  twenty-five  graduates  of  Hampton  Institute  were 
teaching  in  the  public  schools  of  Virginia  in  1917-18.  The  good 
influence  of  that  institution  on  colored  schools  in  Virginia  can 
scarcely  be  over-estimated.  Other  schools,  endowed  by  private 
funds,  have  contributed  no  small  share  to  the  teaching  force  of 
colored  schools. 

County  Training  Schools  are  beginning  to  send  out  teachers 
to  rural  colored  schools  and  promise  good  assistance  in  the 
present  emergency.  They  cannot,  however,  meet  the  needs  of 
professional  training,  and  should  not  set  themselves  up  as  little 
normal  schools. 

The  one  public  agency  of  the  state  for  the  training  of  colored 
teachers  is  the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  at 
Petersburg.  Its  total  number  of  graduates  up  to  1917  was  1,461 
of  whom  876  were  teachers,  153  were  housekeepers,  31  were 
continuing  their  education  in  other  institutions,  290  were 
engaged  in  miscellaneous  occupations,  and  111  were  deceased 

At  present  this  school  is  overcrowded  and  every  year  is 
obliged  to  turn  away  students  seeking  admission.  The  plant 
is  too  small  and  sadly  in  need  of  repairs  and  renovation.  Its 
financial   support   is  insufficient.     But,   hampered   by  over- 


206  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

crowding,  by  meagre  equipment  and  support,  this  institution 
is  performing  an  admirable  work,  and  in  service  is  richly  repay- 
ing the  state  for  every  dollar  invested. 

A  much  larger  supply  of  trained  colored  teachers  is  impera- 
tive. The  state  should  increase  generously  its  support  of  the 
Petersburg  Normal  School,  both  to  increase  its  output  and  to 
raise  its  standard  of  training  Negro  teachers.  When  that  has 
been  done  a  second  colored  normal  school  must  be  established. 

(/).  Buildings  and  Equipment:1  The  character  of  the  school 
buildings  and  of  the  school  equipment  provided  for  colored 
children  is  too  well  known  to  the  people  of  Virginia  to  require 
detailed  description.  Well  planned,  well  built,  and  even  fairly 
well  equipped  buildings  are  very  much  the  exception — many 
cities  even  providing  wretched  buildings  for  their  colored  chil- 
dren. The  figures  in  Tables  104-112  make  sufficiently  clear 
the  fact  that  colored  school  buildings  in  general  are  poorly 
built,  wretchedly  equipped  and  in  many  cases  impossibly  over- 
crowded. 

In  spite  of  present  conditions,  however,  there  is  distinct 
promise  of  early  improvement.  As  never  before  districts  are 
interested  in  the  improvement  of  colored  school  buildings  and 
equipment,  the  colored  people  are  laboring  hard  with  their  own 
resources,  the  State  Department  is  providing  assistance,  and 
private  endowments  are  stimulating  local  and  state  endeavor. 

In  particular  the  Rosenwald2  fund  is  arousing  activity  in  the 
erection  of  good  buildings  for  colored  children,  providing,  under 
certain  conditions  of  cooperation  by  the  colored  people  and  by 
the  state,  $400  to  complete  a  one-teacher  building,  and  $500  for 
building  a  school  house  of  more  than  one  room.  Already  forty- 
six  buildings  have  been  erected  at  a  total  cost  of  $80,000.  Of 
this  amount  the  Rosenwald  fund  gave  $22,000,  and  the  colored 
people  raised  $25,000. 

(g).  Supervisions  As  indicated  in  Chapter  XIV,  supervi- 
sion, excellent  in  character  but  limited  in  extent  and  scope,  has 

»    See  Chapter  XVII. 

3  To  July  30,  1919,  Mr.  Julius  Rosenwald  has  assisted  in  building 
751  Negro  rural  schools  in  eleven  Southern  States.  The  total  cost  was 
$1,171,000,  of  which  Mr.  Rosenwald  gave  $285,000,  and  the  colored 
people  themselves  raised  $443,000.  Mr.  Rosenwald's  gifts  have  been 
made  through  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama.  Virginia  ranks  fifth 
among  the  States  in  number  of  schools  built  with  aid  from  this  fund. 

»    See  Chapter  XIV. 


(A)    Hickory  Hill.    Chesterfield  County. 


iB)    Whitestone.    Lancaster  County. 


» -     i  ,(  -       >■ 
1   -. 


(C)    Gravel  Hill.    Amelia  County. 
TYPICAL  COLORED  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS. 

A.  A  splendid  type  of  four-room  rural  school. 

B.  A  typical  county  training  school,  colored  patrons  contributing  over  half  of  the  cost. 

C.  The  usual  type  of  Negro  rural  school. 


Negro  Education  207 

been  provided  for  rural  colored  schools  of  the  state.    Virginia 
has  been  a  pioneer  in  cooperating  with  private  foundations  for 
the  supervision  of  the  colored  rural  schools.    The  first  super- 
vising industrial  teacher  under  the  Jeanes  fund1  was  employed 
in  Henrico  county  in  1908-09,  and  in  1910,  a  State  Agent  of 
Negro  Rural  Schools  was  first  employed.     All  the  Southern 
States  with  one  exception  have  since  that  time  employed  such 
agents  through  the  assistance  of  the  General  Education  Board. 
Excellent  pioneer  work  has  been  done  in  57  counties.     A 
more  practical  course  of  study  has  resulted  from  the  industries 
that  have  been  introduced,  the  people  in  the  country  have  been 
organized  for  self  help  and  public  sentiment  has  been  improved. 
It  remains  to  reorganize  supervision  of  colored  schools  by 
reducing  the  area  of  each  supervisor's  district  and  extending 
the  scope  of  her  work  so  as  to  provide  sadly  needed  supervision 
of  primary  teaching  as  well  as  of  industrial  work.    Such  a  pro- 
cedure would  reduce  the  expense  and  difficulty  of  travel  as  well 
as  improve  the  work  of  rural  colored  schools  in  general.    Lack  of 
provision  for  the  means  and  expense  of  travel  constitute  one  of 
the  greatest  difficulties  to  be  overcome  by  colored  supervision 
at  present.    It  would  be  true  economy  for  the  counties  to  fur- 
nish sufficient  traveling  allowances  to  enable  supervisors  to 
provide  their  own  teams  or  other  means  of  travel. 

(h).  Finance:2  As  all  other  educational  problems,  the  prob- 
lems of  Negro  education  in  Virginia  sooner  or  later  resolve  into 
the  fundamental  question  of  money.  The  general  problemsof 
school  finance  in  Virginia  are  considered  in  Chapter  XXI. 
One  point  may  justify  further  consideration  here. 

The  pay  of  teachers  must  always  be  the  primary  .financial 
problem  in  school  administration.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
pay  of  colored  teachers  is  so  low  that  there  is  no  possibility  of 
securing  competent  teachers  unless  and  until  the  teachers'  pay 
is  materially  increased. 

1  The  Jeanes  and  Slater  funds  for  Negro  education  are  administered 
by  Dr.  James  H.  Dillard,  Charlottesville,  Virginia.  The  Jeanes  fund 
is  used  to  assist  nearly  300  counties  in  the  Southern  States  in  employing 
supervising  industrial  teachers.  The  Slater  fund  is  used  chiefly  to  aid 
secondary  schools  both  public  and  private.  It  is  now  assisting  about 
100  County  Training  Schools  in  the  Southern  States. 

3    See  Chapter  XXI. 


208  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  state  appropriates  annually  to  county  school  boards  an 
amount  of  money  determined  by  the  total  number  of  children 
(white  and  colored  together)  of  school  age  in  the  county.  That 
money  is  apportioned  to  districts  by  the  county  boards  and  to 
schools  in  each  district  by  the  district  trustees  according  to 
their  judgment.  The  result  is  that  money  is  given  to  the  county 
by  the  state  in  amounts  determined  by  the  number  of  children, 
white  and  colored,  (the  same  amount  for  each  white  and  each 
colored  child)  but  distributed  without  reference  to  the  relative 
proportion  of  white  and  colored  children  needing  education. 

In  Table  95  are  presented  figures  showing  the  ratio  of  the 
amount  expended  for  colored  teachers'  pay  and  the  amount 
received  per  colored  child  from  state  funds  in  different  counties 
and  cities.    Those  figures  show  that : 

(1).  In  the  group  of  thirty-two  counties  having  each  from 
fifty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  their  total  population  colored, 
not  a  single  county  spends  as  much  for  the  pay  of  colored 
teachers  as  it  gets  from  the  state  funds  by  reason  of  the  presence 
of  colored  children  in  the  county.  For  that  group  .of  counties 
as  a  whole,  the  total  expenditure  for  the  pay  of  colored  teachers 
was  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  amount  received  from 
state  funds  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  colored  children. 

(2).  In  the  group  of  thirty-one  counties  having  each  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  its  population  colored,  eight 
only  expend  for  the  pay  of  colored  children  as  much  as  they 
get  from  the  state  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  colored  children. 
For  that  group  of  counties  as  a  whole  the  total  expenditure  for 
the  pay  of  colored  teachers  was  a  little  more  than  three-quarters 
of  the  total  amount  received  from  state  funds  by  reason  of  the 
presence  of  colored  children. 

(3).  Of  sixty-three  counties  of  the  state  having  each  a  pro- 
portion of  Negro  population  in  excess  of  twenty-five  per  cent 
and  together  containing  seventy-one  per  cent  of  all  colored 
children  in  the  state,  only  eight  drew  on  their  local  tax  funds 
for  the  principal  cost  of  Negro  education,  namely,  the  pay  of 
colored  teachers.  The  other  fifty-five  of  those  counties  drew 
money  from  state  funds  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  colored 
children  and  devoted  a  part  of  it  to  the  white  schools. 


Negro  Education  209 

Such  conditions  are  thoroughly  unjust  and  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

Future  Outlook:  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  brighter  day 
is  at  hand  for  Negro  education  in  Virginia.  The  good  work  of 
Jeanes  industrial  teachers  in  making  the  country  schools  more 
practical  in  their  work  and  showing  what  may  be  done  under 
wise  direction  has  created  a  widespread  demand  for  better 
trained  teachers.  The  attendance  of  more  than  one-third  of 
the  teachers  at  summer  schools  is  an  evidence  of  their  earnest 
spirit  and  desire  to  prepare  themselves  for  greater  service.  The 
self-help  of  the  colored  people  in  raising  through  their  school 
leagues  $50,000  a  year  for  various  improvements;  and  particu- 
larly the  ferment  over  the  building  of  school  houses,  is  being 
met  with  encouragement  and  help  on  the  part  of  local  school 
officials. 

Progress  in  Other  States:  In  providing  better  Negro  schools, 
Virginia  will  have  the  company  of  other  progressive  states. 
Louisiana  has  lately  increased  its  school  revenues  very  consider- 
ably and  the  State  Superintendent  estimates  that  a  quarter  of 
a  million  dollars  more  money  will  be  spent  next  session  on  the 
Negro  schools.  A  supply  of  teachers  was  not  available  to  use 
so  large  an  increase,  and  in  order  to  meet  the  emergency,  sum- 
mer schools  of  twelve  weeks  have  been  organized  in  various 
parishes,  enrolling  over  1,000  students  who  are  working  for  a 
teacher's  certificate.  Beauregard  Parish  in  that  state  has 
recently  fixed  a  minimum  salary  for  colored  teachers  of  $60 
per  month. 

The  South  Carolina  legislature  recently  appropiated  $73,000 
to  the  colored  State  Agricultural  College  at  Orangeburg. 
North  Carolina  is  spending  over  $100,000  in  new  building  and 
equipment  for  colored  State  Normal  Schools.  High  schools 
have  been  given  encouragement  in  both  of  these  states. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  in  any  county  or  city  of  the  state  the  amount  spent 
for  the  salaries  of  colored  teachers  be  not  less  than  the  amount 
received  from  the  state  for  instructional  purposes  by  reason  of 
the  presence,  enrolment,  or  attendance  of  colored  children  in 
that  county  or  city. 


210  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

2.  That  the  length  of  the  school  term  be  extended.  Cf. 
Chapter  II. 

3.  That  the  pay  of  teachers  be  increased.    Cf.  Chapter  VII. 

4.  That  more  and  better  school  buildings  be  provided.  Cf. 
Chapter  XVII. 

5.  That  the  work  of  the  supervising  industrial  teachers  in 
making  a  more  practical  course  of  study  for  the  rural  schools 
be  strengthened  and  extended. 

6.  That  the  number  of  supervisors  be  increased  so  that 
class-room  instruction,  especially  in  the  primary  grades,  may 
be  supervised,  as  well  as  industrial  work,  and  that  the  state  give 
financial  encouragement  to  counties  for  adequate  supervision. 

7.  That  the  work  of  the  County  Training  Schools  be  strength- 
ened and  that  state  aid  be  provided. 

8.  That  increased  facilities  be  provided  for  high  schools 
both  in  cities  and  counties  with  state  aid. 

9.  That  the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  be 
given  more  adequate  financial  support  for  the  training  of 
teachers. 

10.  That,  in  due  time  and  after  adequate  provision  has  been 
made  for  the  Virginia  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  a 
second  colored  normal  school  be  established. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  SUPERVISION  OF  INSTRUCTION 
IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

IN  preceding  chapters  of  this  report  it  has  been  pointed  out 
that  education  in  the  rural  schools  of  Virginia  is  of  a  very 
inferior  character.  Thus,  in  Chapter  V  it  was  shown  that  in 
the  majority  of  rural  schools  only  the  merest  skeleton  of  studies 
is  provided,  that  many  standards  set  by  the  State  Course  of 
Study  for  Elementary  Schools  are  practically  ignored,  that  the 
time  allotments  for  various  studies  conform  with  no  recognized 
standards,  and  that  there  is  no  uniformity  or  method  in  the 
apportionment  of  the  teacher's  attention  to  pupils  in  different 
grades.  Further,  in  Chapter  VI  it  was  shown  that  the  results 
of  instruction  in  rural  schools  fall  far  below  reasonable  stand- 
ards of  accomplishment.  Finally,  it  was  shown  in  Chapters 
VII  to  IX  that  as  a  body  teachers  in  rural  schools  are  poorly 
educated,  have  seldom  had  any  professional  training,  and  in  a 
large  proportion  of  cases  have  had  no  previous  experience  in 
teaching. 

Those  facts  show,  among  other  things,  the  imperative  need 
for  the  supervision  of  instruction  in  the  rural  schools  of  Virginia. 
In  this  chapter  (i)  present  provisions  are  analysed,  and  (ii) 
suggestions  are  made  for  needed  changes. 

i. — PRESENT  PROVISION  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 

At  present  some  provision  is  made  for  rural  school  supervision 
(1)  through  the  division  superintendent,  (2)  through  supervisors 
of  white  schools,  and  (3)  through  supervising  industrial  teachers 
for  colored  schools. 

(1).  Supervision  by  the  Division  Superintendent:  Theoretic- 
ally the  division  superintendent  among  his  numerous  other 
duties,  supervises  instruction,  and  in  most  counties  of  the  State 
no  other  provision  is  made  for  supervision.     As  a  matter  of 


212  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

fact,  however,  he  is  primarily  an  administrative  and  executive 
officer,  and  in  most  cases  does  very  little  in  the  way  of  super- 
vising instruction.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  many 
superintendents  are  unqualified  to  supervise  classroom  instruc- 
tion, and  in  part  to  the  fact  that,  even  where  superintendents 
are  qualified,  the  task  of  classroom  supervision  is  far  too  great 
for  any  one  person  in  most  divisions.  The  following  facts 
indicate  present  conditions : 

(a).  Of  eighty-six  (non-city)  division  superintendents  fifty- 
seven  report  that  their  entire  time  is  devoted  to  school  duties. 
Of  the  others  fifteen  report  that  they  spend  "nearly  all"  of  their 
time  in  school  work,  while  fourteen  report  that  they  devote 
form  one-third  to  five-sixths  of  their  time  to  the  schools.  This 
does  not  mean  that  they  devote  their  time  to  the  supervision 
of  instruction,  or  even  to  school  visitation.  By  far  the  greatest 
part  of  their  time  is  devoted  to  administrative,  executive,  or 
business  matters.  Reports  indicate  that  superintendents  on 
the  average  devote  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  their  time  to 
school  visits,  and  in  most  cases  the  actual  supervision  of  class- 
room instruction  plays  little  part  in  that  work.  It  is  safe  to 
say  that  on  the  average  not  more  than  two  or  three  days  a 
week  are  spent  by  division  superintendents  in  school  visits. 
With  rare  exceptions  division  superintendents  provide  but 
little  supervision  of  actual  classroom  instruction. 

(b).  Several  division  superintendents  are  not  qualified  to 
supervise  classroom  instruction.  In  Table  96  are  presented 
figures  showing  that  in  1918-19  there  were  twelve  superintend- 
ents who  had  had  no  experience  in  teaching  and  twenty-one 
who  had  had  less  than  three  years  of  experience. 

(c).  In  Table  97  are  presented  figures  showing  the  size  of 
non-city  school  divisions.  Those  figures  show  that  on  the 
average  non-city  divisions  embrace  an  area  of  between  400  and 
500  square  miles,  contain  from  3,500  tc  4,000  pupils,  and  engage 
the  services  of  between  120  and  130  teachers.  In  the  majority 
of  divisions  the  superintendent  could  not  possibly  supervise 
instruction  adequately,  even  if  he  had  no  other  duties  to  per- 
form. 

It  should  be  clear,  as  far  as  classroom  supervision  is  concerned, 
(a)  that  many  of  the  present  superintendents  are  not  qualified 


Supervision  of  Instruction  in  Rural  Schools        213 

by  training  or  experience  properly  to  supervise  instruction, 
and  (b)  that  in  most  divisions  the  area  to  be  covered  and  the 
number  of  teachers  to  be  supervised  preclude  the  possibility 
of  adequate  supervision  by  superintendents. 

(2).  Supervisors  of  White  Schools:  Prior  to  1918  supervisors 
for  non-city  white  schools,  except  in  so  far  as  the  division  super- 
intendents acted  as  supervisors,  were  found  in  less  than  five 
or  six  counties  of  the  State,  and  in  those  counties  for  the  most 
part  somewhat  irregularly  as  local  funds  permitted,  or  as  the 
local  authorities  recognized  their  need.  The  State  made  no 
provision  therefor.  State  funds  were  first  made  available  for 
this  purpose  in  1918.  In  that  year  provision  was  made  for 
supervision  in  the  appropriation  for  "rural  one-room  and  two- 
room  and  graded  schools." 

In  accordance  with  that  provision  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion set  apart  the  sum  of  815,000  for  use  in  co-operating  with 
counties  and  districts  in  payment  of  the  salaries  of  rural  school 
supervisors  during  the  school  year  1918-19.  For  the  school 
year  1919-20  that  fund  has  been  increased  to  830,000. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  State  contributes  to  the  pay- 
ment of  the  salaries  of  rural  school  supervisors  are:  (a)  the 
State  will  pay  not  to  exceed  8500  towards  the  salary  of  each 
supervisor,  provided  the  local  authorities  (county  or  district), 
supply  an  amount  equal  to  that  supplied  by  the  State;  (b)  the 
State  Board  of  Education  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  approve 
the  appointments  to  fill  these  positions  of  rural  supervisors, 
the  actual  selections  to  be  made  by  the  local  authorities. 

Under  this  plan  all  of  the  rural  schools  of  the  following  coun- 
ties received  more  or  less  supervision  in  1918-19: — Albemarle, 
Culpeper,  Elizabeth  City,  Page,  Pittslyvania,  Princess  Anne, 
and  Roanoke.  In  the  following  counties  the  schools  of  one  or 
two  districts  received  supervision, — Loudoun,  Montgomery, 
Rockingham  and  Wise.  Further,  a  supervisor  of  instruction 
was  maintained  for  each  of  the  counties  of  Charles  City,  James 
City  and  New  Kent,  those  supervisors  being  employed  as  home 
demonstration  agents  during  the  summer  months  and  for  such 
services  part  of  their  salaries  being  provided  from  the  Smith- 
Lever  Fund.  Also,  supervision  for  some  schools  of  two  districts 
of  Halifax  County  was  provided  through  private  contributions. 


214  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

In  addition,  the  State  co-operated  in  providing  funds  to  employ 
the  principals  of  certain  high  schools  in  Russell  and  Wythe 
counties  for  one  day  each  week  to  supervise  the  rural  schools. 
Of  the  supervisors  employed  during  the  session  1918-19  in 
co-operation  with  the  State,  the  following  facts  may  be  noted: 

(a)  few  had  such  broad  training  as  their  duties  should  demand; 

(b)  the  experience  of  the  majority  is  in  amount  all  that  might 
be  desired;  (c)  the  salaries  paid,  with  no  allowance  for  travel, 
are  totally  inadequate;  (d)  in  several  cases  the  areas  to  be 
covered  are  such  as  to  render  almost  useless  the  type  of  super- 
vision given, 

(3).  Supervising  Industrial  Teachers  for  Colored  Schools: 
During  the  school  year  1918-19  supervising  industrial  teachers 
were  employed  to  supervise  the  colored  schools  of  fifty-seven 
counties.  This  work  was  begun  in  1908  and  has  been  made 
possible  through  the  co-operation  of  local  school  authorities 
and  several  private  agencies.  Not  until  1918  were  any  State 
funds  available.  During  the  past  school  year  approximately 
sixty  per  cent  of  the  salaries  of  those  supervisors  was  paid  out 
of  appropriation  by  the  several  counties  by  the  State  and  out 
of  the  Smith-Lever  funds.  Several  private  agencies  contributed 
the  remaining  funds  necessary. 

These  supervising  industrial  teachers  have  performed  very 
valuable  work  (a)  by  developing  among  the  colored  people 
a  spirit  of  co-operation  with  the  white  people  in  school  matters; 
(b)  by  arousing  in  the  colored  people  an  increased  interest  in 
better  schools;  (c)  by  assisting  in  the  raising  of  funds  for  school 
improvement  by  private  contributions;  (d)  by  introducing 
simple  forms  of  hand  work  into  the  colored  schools;  (e)  by 
serving  as  home  demonstration  agents  for  the  betterment  of 
home  conditions  and  the  saving  of  food  stuffs;  (f)  by  super- 
vising the  work  of  many  poorly  trained  teachers. 

The  work  of  these  colored  supervisors  deserve  the  active 
support  of  local  and  State  authorities.  At  present  they  are 
working  for  very  inadequate  salaries  and  sometimes  at  great 
personal  sacrifice.  More  should  be  employed  and  better  pro- 
vision should  be  made  by  the  State  for  their  remuneration.  For 
a  very  small  expenditure  of  funds  the  State  and  the  counties 
are  receiving  very  large  returns  from  this  body  of  workers. 


Supervision  of  Instruction  in  Rural  Schools       215 

ii. — FURTHER  PROVISION  NECESSARY 

The  proper  development  of  education  in  rural  Virginia  is 
impossible  without  better  provision  for  the  supervision  of 
instruction.  In  any  circumstances  supervision  is  necessary 
and  under  present  conditions  it  is  imperative  that  a  definite 
program  for  the  supervision  of  rural  schools  be  inaugurated. 
The  survey  staff  recommends  the  organization  outlined  below. 

(1).  The  State  Department  of  Education:  While  supervision 
of  classroom  instruction  is  primarily  a  matter  of  the  individual 
teacher,  certain  important  elements  involve  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education.  The  functions  belonging  to  that  depart- 
ment should  include :  (a)  the  establishment  of  standards  for  the 
course  of  study,  time  allotments  and  daily  schedule  (cf .  Chapter 
V) ;  (b)  the  publication  of  typical  courses  and  programs  for 
schools  of  various  types  (cf.  Chapter  V),  as  well  as  other  bulle- 
tins; (c)  provision  for  general  State  supervision;  (d)  provision 
for  general  conferences,  etc. 

(2).  The  Division  Superintendent:  The  superintendent 
should  have  general  oversight  and  control  over  the  supervision 
of  instruction  in  his  division.  It  must  be  recognized,  however, 
that  his  duties  as  an  administrative  and  executive  officer  in 
most  cases  will  not  leave  it  possible  for  him  to  perform  any 
great  amount  of  direct  supervision  over  classroom  instruction. 
In  any  division  with  more  than  fifty  teachers  certainly  he  must 
have  assistance  in  supervision  and  in  the  majority  of  divisions 
direct  classroom  supervision  must  be  done  principally  by  super- 
visors rather  than  by  the  superintendent. 

(3).  Supervisors  of  White  Schools:  In  all  divisions  having 
fifty  or  more  white  teachers  engaged  one  supervisor  should  be 
employed  for  every  fifty  white  teachers,  or  major  part  of  that 
number — such  supervisors  to  work  under  the  direction  and 
authority  of  the  division  superintendent. 

(4).  Supervisors  for  Colored  Schools:  In  each  division  em- 
ploying over  twenty-five  colored  teachers  one  supervisor  should 
be  employed  for  every  fifty  colored  teachers,  or  major  part  of 
that  number. 

Unless  some  such  provision  is  made  for  supervision  children 
in  the  rural  schools  of  Virginia  must  continue  to  receive  a  very 


216  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

inferior  grade  of  instruction.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey- 
staff  provision  for  the  adequate  supervision  of  rural  schools 
is  one  of  the  most  pressing  needs  at  the  present  time. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  in  each  non-city  superintendency  division  having 
as  many  as  fifty  white  teachers  employed  one  supervisor  of 
white  schools  be  provided  for  every  fifty  teachers  or  major 
fraction  of  that  number  of  teachers  employed. 

2.  That  the  minimum  salary  of  such  supervisors  be  set  at 
one  thousand  dollars. 

3.  That  the  State  provide  for  the  payment  of  one-half  of 
the  salaries  of  such  supervisors. 

4.  That  the  minimum  qualifications  for  such  supervisors 
be  set  at  full  normal  school  graduation  and  three  years  of  suc- 
cessful experience. 

5.  That  in  each  non-city  superintendency  division  having 
twenty-five  or  more  colored  teachers  employed  one  supervisor 
of  colored  schools  be  provided  for  every  fifty  colored  teachers 
or  major  fraction  of  that  number  of  teachers  employed. 

6.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  establish  minimum 
salary  standards  and  minimum  qualifications  for  such  super- 
visors of  colored  schools. 

7.  That  the  State  provide  for  the  payment  of  one-half  of 
the  salaries  of  such  supervisors  for  colored  schools  out  of  State 
funds  or  funds  passing  through  the  hands  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  SMALL  SCHOOL  AND  SCHOOL 
CONSOLIDATION 

VIRGINIA  is  at  present  a  State  primarily  of  small  one-room 
and  two-room  schools.  Of  approximately  sixty-five  hun- 
dred non-city  schools  more  than  two-thirds  are  one-room  schools, 
more  than  one-sixth  are  two-room  schools,  and  less  than  one- 
sixth  have  three  or  more  rooms  each.  Of  all  schools  in  the  State 
(including  those  in  cities)  more  than  four-fifths  are  one-room 
or  two-room  rural  schools,  enrolling  forty-four  per  cent  of  all 
white  pupils,  more  than  two-thirds  of  all  colored  pupils,  and 
over  one-half  of  all  pupils  of  both  races  in  the  State.  It  is 
obvious  that  one  of  the  greatest  problems  for  education  in 
Virginia  is  that  created  by  the  large  number  of  one-room  or 
two-room  schools. 

In  previous  chapters  of  this  report  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  educational  situation  in  one-room  and  two-room  schools  is 
serious.  Initial  difficulties  are :  (a)  proper  grading  is  very  difficult 
when  pupils  of  all  stages  of  maturity  and  advancement  must 
be  taught  by  one  teacher  or  by  two  teachers;  (b)  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  devote  to  each  pupil  or  each  grade  the  attention  need- 
ed; (c)  proper  provision  for  education  in  small  schools  is  expensive. 
To  those  necessary  difficulties  in  Virginia  are  added  at  present 
other  difficulties  and  defects  previously  indicated  and  in  part 
shown  in  Table  98.    They  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  average  number  of  days  per  school  term  that  one- 
room  and  two-room  rural  schools  are  open  is  125  for  white 
schools,  116  for  colored  schools,  and  122  for  both  combined. 
Other  non-city  schools  are  open  nearly  one-third  longer  and 
city  schools  about  two-fifths  longer.  One-room  and  two-room 
rural  schools  for  whites  are  open  on  the  average  little  more  than 
two-thirds  of  a  standard  nine-month  term,  and  colored  schools 
of  the  same  classes  less  than  two-thirds  of  a  standard  nine- 
month  term.    Cf.  Tables  6  and  7. 


218  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

2.  In  the  upper  elementary  grades  of  one-room  and  two- 
room  non-city  schools  pupils  are  on  the  average  more  than  a 
year  older  than  the  Virginia  standard  age,  and  two  years  older 
than  the  national  standard.  Colored  children  in  those  grades 
are  about  two  and  one-half  years  older  than  the  Virginia  stand- 
ard and  about  three  and  one-half  years  older  than  the  national 
standard.    Cf.  Table  21. 

3.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  over  three- 
fifths  of  the  white  pupils  are  over-age  for  their  grades  according 
to  the  Virginia  standard,  and  more  than  four-fifths  are  over-age 
according  to  the  national  standard.  Of  colored  pupils  in  schools 
of  the  same  class  from  three-quarters  to  nine-tenths  are  over- 
age, according  to  the  Virginia  standard,  or  from  93  to  98  per 
cent,  according  to  the  national  standard.    Cf.  Table  22. 

4.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  white  pupils  have  attended  school  a  year  or  more 
longer  than  they  should  have  attended  if  progress  from  grade 
to  grade  had  been  regular,  and  about  three-quarters  of  the 
colored  pupils  have  been  in  school  a  year  or  more  longer  than 
they  should  have  been  to  reach  the  grades  in  which  they  are 
found,  if  progress  had  been  regular.    Cf.  Tables  17  and  37. 

5.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  the  ratio  of 
average  daily  attendance  to  enrolment  is  less  than  sixty  per 
cent,  for  white  pupils  and  for  colored  pupils. 

6.  The  average  annual  salary  paid  in  1916-17  to  white 
teachers  in  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  was  $245, 
or  about  fifty-seven  per  cent  of  the  average  annual  salary 
paid  to  teachers  in  larger  non-city  schools.  For  colored  teachers 
in  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  the  average  annual 
salary  was  S167,  as  compared  with  $225  paid  to  colored  teachers 
in  larger  non-city  schools.  The  poorest  paid  teachers  in  the 
State  are  those  in  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools, 
though  their  tasks  are  infinitely  more  difficult  and  call  for  much 
greater  ability  and  skill  than  is  demanded  of  teachers  in  any 
other  type  of  school.    Cf.  Table  98. 

7.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  for  whites 
the  expenditure  per  pupil  for  teaching  in  1916-17  was  $7.28, 
as  compared  with  an  expenditure  of  SI 3. 41  per  pupil  for  the 


The  Small  School  and  Consolidation  219 

same  purpose  in  larger  non-city  schools.  In  schools  of  the 
same  classes  for  colored  children  the  expenditure  per  pupil  was 
S3. 38,  as  compared  with  an  expenditure  of  $4.79  in  larger  non- 
city  schools.    Cf.  Table  98. 

8.  In  one-room  non-city  schools,  and  almost  to  an  equal 
extent  in  two-room  non-city  schools,  the  educational  offerings 
are  commonly  limited  to  the  merest  skeleton  of  subjects,  and 
many  important  fields  are  entirely  neglected.    Cf.  Chapter  V. 

9.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  as  a  group, 
the  time  allotment  of  the  teacher's  attention  to  the  different 
grades  is  such  as  to  sacrifice  the  interests  of  the  more  numerous 
and  dependent  pupils  in  lower  grades  to  the  interests  of  fewer 
and  less  dependent  pupils  in  upper  grades.    Cf.  Chapter  V. 

10.  In  one-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  the  time 
allotments  to  various  studies  is  in  general  so  chaotic  that  pro- 
gram making  appears  to  depend  on  the  whim  of  individual 
teachers  rather  than  to  follow  any  recognized  principles.  Cf. 
Chapter  V. 

11.  In  general,  the  least  trained,  the  youngest,  and  the 
least  experienced  teachers  are  found  in  one-room  and  two- 
room  non-city  schools.     Cf.  Chapter  VII. 

12.  While  many  excellent  one-room  and  two-room  non-city 
school  buildings  are  found,  the  physical  plant  of  such  schools  is, 
in  general,  poor,  ranging  down  to  types  which  should  long  since 
have  been  condemned,  and  as  a  group  school  buildings  are 
poorly  built,  unhygienicallv  kept,  and  wretchedly  equipped. 
Cf.  Chapter  XVII. 

13.  One-room  and  two-room  non-city  schools  receive  less 
supervision  than  any  other  group  of  schools  in  the  State,  though 
their  needs  are  much  greater  than  those  of  any  other  group. 

14.  In  many  schools  "sub-first,"  "primer,"  or  "introductory" 
classes  unnecessarily  increase  the  number  of  grades  for  which 
instruction  is  provided. 

15.  Results  of  instruction  in  one-room  schools  are  far  inferior 
to  those  for  any  other  type  of  school.    Cf.  Chapter  VI. 

What  are  the  remedies  for  these  intolerable  conditions  in 
Virginia?  In  general  they  are  three:  (a)  provision  for  better 
teachers,  better  buildings,  better  supervision,  and  longer  terms 


220  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

in  cases  where  one-room  schools  are  the  only  types  which  can 
be  provided;  (b)  the  limitation  of  work  in  one-teacher  schools 
to  five  grades;  (c)  reduction  through  consolidation  of  the  number 
of  one-room  and  two-room  schools. 

(a).  Better  One-room  Schools:  Sparsity  of  population  and 
topographical  conditions  will  always  necessitate  a  large  number 
of  one-room  or  small  two-room  schools  in  Virginia,  especially 
since  separate  schools  must  be  maintained  for  white  children 
and  for  colored  children.  In  the  western  part  of  the  State 
mountains  and  mountain  streams  must  always  more  or  less 
isolate  communities  and  schools.  In  the  tide-water  regions 
creeks,  rivers,  and  swamps  must  produce  somewhat  similar 
conditions.  Throughout  the  State  in  general  poor  roads  for 
the  present  must  interfere  seriously  with  school  consolidation. 

Probably  from  one-fifth  to  one-quarter,  possibly  one-third, 
of  the  children  in  Virginia  must  secure  whatever  elementary 
education  they  receive  in  one-room  schools  for  a  long  time  to 
come.  This  being  the  case,  educational  conditions  in  such 
schools  must  be  greatly  improved.  This  can  only  "mean  greater 
expenditure  of  money  for  longer  terms,  for  better  teachers,  for 
better  buildings  and  equipment,  and  for  better  supervision. 
On  these  topics  see  Chapters  I,  VII,  XVII,  and  XIV. 

It  should  always  be  remembered,  however,  that  one-room 
schools  can  never  provide  an  education  of  desirable  standard, 
and  that  their  maintenance  should  be  considered  as  a  last  resort 
where  school  consolidation  is  impossible. 

(6).  Five-grade  one-teacher  schools:  A  second  remedy  for 
present  conditions  in  one-teacher  schools  is  found  in  the  restric- 
tion of  instruction  to  the  first  five  grades. 

At  present  fifteen  counties  in  the  State  are  reported  by 
division  superintendents  to  limit  the  number  of  grades  taught 
in  one-teacher  schools  to  less  than  seven,  the  limit  in  one  county 
being  four  grades,  in  ten  counties  five  grades,  and  in  four  coun- 
ties six  grades.  All  report  favorably  on  such  limited  one- 
teacher  schools  as  compared  with  the  usual  unlimited  school. 

Doubtless  there  are  some  districts  in  the  State  where  the 
limitation  of  one-teacher  schools  to  five  grades  of  instruction 
would  work  hardship,  and  certain  exceptions  to  the  proposed 
general  regulation  might  well  be  allowed  for  cause  on  the 


The  Small  School  and  Consolidation  221 

approval  of  the  county  board  and  the  division  superintendent. 
Two  facts  should  be  noted,  however:  (1)  that  the  necessary- 
choice  is  not  between  seven  grades  of  good  instruction  and  five 
grades  of  good  instruction,  but  between  seven  grades  of  very 
poor  instruction  and  five  grades  of  much  better  instruction; 
(2)  districts  where  one-teacher  schools  are  a  real  necessity  are 
far  less  numerous  than  is  usually  claimed,  the  real  reason  for 
such  schools  being  the  unwillingness  of  districts  to  pay  for  the 
two  teachers  needed,  or  to  develop  consolidated  schools. 

(c).  School  Consolidation:  School  consolidation,  i.e.,  the 
maintenance  of  one  larger  school  in  place  of  two  or  more  small 
schools,  means  better  education  because:  (1)  it  permits  better 
grading  of  pupils  (or  the  substitution  of  graded  classes  for 
ungraded  classes  in  the  majority  of  cases);  (2)  better  teachers 
can  be  secured;  (3)  pupils  can  receive  a  larger  share  of  the  time 
and  attention  of  the  teacher;  (4)  better  buildings  and  better 
equipment  can  be  provided  without  undue  expenditure  for 
overhead  cost;  (5)  better  teaching  is  made  possible  where 
teachers  may  be  assigned  to  special  classes  or  subjects,  e.g., 
where  one  teacher  may  have  had  special  training  in  cooking 
and  sewing,  or  in  music  and  drawing,  or  in  manual  arts;  (6) 
better  supervision  is  possible. 

It  is  less  costly  (for  the  proper  type  of  education)  because: 

(1)  for  example,  in  some  cases,  three  teachers  can  care  for  one 
group  of  seventy-five  or  one-hundred  pupils  in  a  consolidated 
school  better  than  five  teachers  could  care  for  five  groups  each 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  pupils  separated  in  five  one-room  schools; 

(2)  the  care  and  upkeep  of  one  consolidated  school  building 
costs  less  than  the  care  and  upkeep  of  three  or  more  one-room 
and  two-room  buildings;  (3)  equipment  and  supplies  (e.g.,  for 
music,  cooking,  sewing,  agriculture,  manual  training,  etc.) 
which  are  used  in  turn  by  many  pupils  may  be  furnished  in  a 
consolidated  school  at  a  reasonable  cost  per  pupil  unit,  while 
the  cost  of  the  same  equipment  would  be  prohibitive  for  each 
of  three  or  more  schools;  (4)  supervision  costs  less  for  one  con- 
solidated school  than  for  a  single  one-room  school. 

School  consolidation  began  long  since  in  some  parts  of  Vir- 
ginia and  in  some  counties  has  progressed  successfully.  For 
the  State  as  a  whole,  however,  little  has  been  done  in  the  way 


222  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

of  consolidation,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  State  numerous  one- 
room  and  two-room  schools  exist,  not  through  any  physical 
difficulties,  but  only  because  districts  have  failed  to  recognize 
the  weakness  of  the  small  school  or  have  permitted  local 
influence  to  perpetuate  those  weaknesses.  The  members  of 
the  Survey  Staff  are  not  unaware  of  the  difficulties,  or  in  many 
cases  the  impossibilities  of  consolidation.  Nevertheless,  they 
cannot  fail  to  note  that  in  many  cases  consolidation  has  not 
taken  place  where  perfectly  possible  and  eminently  desirable. 
The  possibilities  of  school  consolidation  in  Virginia  have  scarcely 
begun  to  receive  attention. 

Why  has  school  consolidation  been  so  neglected?  Largely 
for  one  or  more  of  the  following  reasons.  (1)  Convenience 
(pride  is  not  the  word)  has  dominated  action  in  communities 
which  insist  on  maintaining  poor  schools  in  their  own  immediate 
vicinity  rather  than  joining  with  their  neighbors  in  maintaining 
a  good  consolidated  school.  (2)  The  system  of  district  boards 
and  district  schools  has  interfered  seriously  with  school  con- 
solidation. (3)  People  have  not  realized  how  bad-  their  small 
schools  really  are  and  how  limited  the  education  is  which  can 
be  provided  even  in  the  best  one-room  and  two-room  schools. 
(4)  Active  attention  on  the  part  of  the  State  Board  and  of  the 
State  Department  of  education  has  not  been  sufficiently  in 
evidence,  though  more  or  less  passively  they  have  advocated 
consolidation  and  though  section  612  of  the  Revised  Code  pro- 
vides that  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  guard  by  regula- 
tion against  such  a  multiplication  of  schools  as  will  tend  to 
cause  a  low  grade  of  instruction  in  the  schools,  or  in  any  other 
way  impair  their  efficiency.  (5)  Groups  of  communities  find 
difficulty  in  agreeing  on  the  building  of  a  school  house  of  the 
consolidated  type  and  on  its  location.  (6)  In  very  many  parts 
of  the  State  physical  conditions  (topography  and  poor  roads) 
make  consolidation  totally  impossible. 

Beyond  question  school  consolidation  must  proceed  much 
farther  if  educational  conditions  in  rural  Virginia  are  to  be 
improved.  Means  of  furthering  the  movement  are  (1)  a  sys- 
tematic analysis  of  conditions  and  possibilities  for  consolida- 
tion in  each  county  by  the  division  superintendent;  (2)  a  cam- 
paign of  propaganda  and  action  by  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 


The  Small  School  and  Consolidation  223 

tion  and  by  the  State  Department  of  Education;  (3)  State  aid 
through  subsidy  for  buildings  of  the  consolidated  school  type; 
(4)  the  abolition  of  present  district  lines  and  the  establishment 
of  a  county  system  of  schools  (Cf.  Chapter  XIX);  (5)  school 
re-organization  as  suggested  in  Chapter  XVI. 

A  necessary  corollary  to  school  consolidation  is  the  free  trans- 
portation of  pupils  living  at  a  distance  from  the  school  building. 
In  Table  99  are  presented  figures  showing  the  extent  to  which 
this  has  already  developed  in  Virginia.  Those  figures  show 
that  one  or  more  wagons  are  employed  for  the  transportation 
of  pupils  in  some  part  or  parts  of  fifty  seven  counties,  They 
also  show,  however,  that  of  nearly  five  hundred  non-city  school 
districts  three  hundred  sixty-one  made  no  provision  for  the 
transportation  of  pupils  in  1916-17.  In  some  districts  trans- 
portation is,  of  course,  unnecessary.  Nevertheless,  the  figures 
show  that  Virginia  has  scarcely  begun  the  consolidation  of 
schools  and  the  transportation  of  pupils. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  call  for  an  investiga- 
tion and  report  by  each  division  superintendent,  that  report  to 
include:  (a)  a  school  map  of  the  county  showing  the  location 
and  type  of  each  school,  distances  between  schools,  etc.;  (b) 
such  statistics  concerning  size  of  schools,  length  of  terms,  types 
of  buildings,  etc.  as  would  assist  in  determining  the  possibilities 
of  school  consolidation;  (c)  recommendations  concerning  pos- 
sible school  consolidation. 

2.  That  a  member  of  the  State  Department  of  Education 
be  detailed  to  assist  county  boards  and  division  superintendents 
in  securing  school  consolidation. 

3.  That  for  administrative  purposes  the  district  system  be 
abandoned  and  that  the  county  be  made  the  unit  for  school 
administration  and  organization.     (Cf.  Chapter  XIX.) 

4.  That  the  State  adopt  a  policy  of  liberal  State  aid  in  pro- 
viding for  the  free  transportation  of  children  to  consolidated 
schools. 


224  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

5.  That  instruction  in  one-room  schools  be  limited  to  grades 
one  to  five  inclusive.    (Cf.  Chapter  XVI.) 

6.  That  the  "sub-first,"  "primer"  or  "introductory"  classes, 
so-called,  be  eliminated  in  all  one-teacher  and  two-teacher 
schools. 

7.  That  the  education  offered  in  one-room  and  two-room 
schools  be  improved  by :  (a)  providing  better  trained  and  better 
paid  teachers  (See  Chapters  VII-IX);  (b)  by  providing  better 
buildings  and  equipment  (See  Chapter  XVII);  (c)  by  pro- 
viding better  supervision  (See  Chapter  XIV);  and  (c)  by 
providing  for  a  standard  nine  months  term  (See  Chapter  II). 


CHAPTER  XVI 
SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 

AT  present  the  school  system  of  Virginia  provides  eleven 
grades  of  instruction,  the  complete  course  being  divided 
into  seven  grades  of  elementary  and  four  grades  of  high-school 
education.  This  is  commonly  called  the  "seven-four"  plan  in 
contrast  with  the  "eight-four"  plan  which  is  the  standard 
organization  in  most  parts  of  the  country  and  with  the  "five- 
six"  or  "six-six"  plan  and  their  variations  rapidly  growing  in 
favor. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  present  school  organi- 
zation is  not  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  State,  and  involves 
many  defects  which  seriously  handicap  the  education  of  Vir- 
ginia children.  Those  defects  may  be  summarized  in  this 
chapter  and  proposals  made  for  improvement. 

i. — SOME  EXISTING  CONDITIONS 

1.  In  the  public  schools  of  Virginia  pupils  tend  to  leave 
school  at  an  early  age,  after  a  brief  period  of  attendance,  and 
at  an  early  stage  of  their  education  elimination  begins  early 
and  progresses  rapidly.1 

2.  There  is  a  tremendous  amount  of  retardation,  especially 
in  the  non-city  schools.1 

3.  About  two-thirds  of  the  schools  of  Virginia  are  attempting 
the  impossible  task  of  providing  seven  grades  (sometimes 
eight  grades)  of  instruction  with  one  poorly-trained  teacher.2 

4.  The  average  size  of  the  upper  grades  in  one-teacher  white 
schools  is  about  three  pupils,  in  two-teacher  white  schools  about 
five  pupils,  and  in  three-teacher  white  schools  about  seven  or 
eight  pupils. 


>    See  Chapter  IV. 
■    See  Chapter  XV. 


226  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

5.  In  the  smaller  schools  of  the  State  the  instruction  provided 
for  each  grade  or  received  by  each  pupil  is  spread  so  thin  that 
effective  education  is  impossible.  Neither  upper  grade  pupils 
nor  lower  grade  pupils  can  receive  the  proper  attention  of  the 
teacher,  and  unfortunately  in  most  cases  the  interests  of  the 
younger  pupils  are  sacrificed  for  the  benefit  of  pupils  in  upper 
grades.  * 

6.  The  education  of  pupils  in  the  upper  elementary  and 
early  high-school  grades  is  extremely  costly,  if  properly  provided, 
because  pupils  are  scattered  in  small  numbers  in  several  small 
and  weak  schools. 

7.  The  small  numbers  of  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  of  most 
non-city  schools  precludes  the  possibility  of  providing  studies 
requiring  special  equipment  such  as  science,  and  all  vocational 
subjects. 

8.  In  the  school  year  1917-18  (according  to  the  report  of 
the  State  High  School  Supervisor)  there  were  552  high  schools 
in  Virginia.  Of  those  only  183  (about  one-third)  were  four- 
year  accredited  schools,  while  147  (about  one  quarter  were  three 
year  or  four-year  unaccredited  schools,  and  222  (about  two- 
fifths)  were  unaccredited  schools,  offering  less  than  three  grade- 
years  of  high  school  work.  A  somewhat  different  classification 
given  in  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion for  1917-18  indicates  that  there  were  627  schools  attempt- 
ing to  provide  some  kind  and  some  amount  of  high-school 
instruction,  227  of  those  schools  being  classified  as  First  Grade 
High  Schools,  184  as  Second  Grade  High  Schools,  164  as  Third 
Grade  High  Schools,  and  90  as  schools  providing  one  class  grade 
of  high  school  work.  There  are  far  too  many  over-ambitious 
small  schools  in  Virginia  attempting  to  provide  high-school  work, 
for  the  most  part  at  the  expense  of  the  lower  grades. 

9.  An  average  of  less  than  ten  pupils  to  a  grade  is  found  in 
one-third  of  the  four-year  high  schools,  in  nearly  three-quarters 
of  the  three-year  high  schools,  and  in  almost  all  of  the  schools 
maintaining  less  than  three  high-school  grades.  This  means 
very  limited  secondary  education  at  very  high  cost. 

1    See  Chapter  V. 


School  Organization  227 

10.  The  median  per  pupil  cost  of  high-school  instruction  in 
1917-18  was  $42.40  in  accredited  non-city  high  schools,  and  S50 
in  non-accredited  non-city  high  schools,  as  compared  with  a 
per  pupil  cost  of  $10  for  elementary  school  instruction  in 
non-city  schools  maintaining  accredited  or  unaccredited  high- 
school  grades. 

11.  In  1917-18  fifteen  counties  of  Virginia  had  no  accredited 
four-year  high  schools.  Twenty-eight  counties  had  each  one 
or  more  accredited  four-year  high  schools,  but  also  each  had 
at  least  five  or  more  unaccredited  schools  claiming  to  offer  two, 
three,  or  four  years  of  high  school  work,  for  the  most  part 
offering  less  than  twelve  units  of  high  school  work. 

12.  In  1917-18  Virginia  had  one  non-city  high  school  of 
some  sort  for  every  29  high  school  pupils  enrolled.  In  high  schools 
of  the  "First  Grade"  the  average  high  school  enrolment  was  54, 
in  those  of  "Second  Grade"  it  was  24,  in  those  of  "Third  Grade" 
it  was  15,  and  in  schools  offering  one  grade  of  high  school  work 
it  was  7. 

Summarizing  present  conditions  we  may  say  that  the  present 
school  organization  has  resulted  in  a  situation  where  neither 
the  elementary  schools  nor  the  high  schools  can  perform  their 
proper  functions. 

ii. — REORGANIZATION  RECOMMENDED 

Few  of  the  defects  of  the  present  school  organization  men- 
tioned above  are  peculiar  to  Virginia.  They  have  been  found, 
sometimes  in  less,  sometimes  in  more  aggravated  form,  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and  recognition  of  them  has  led  to  a  com- 
prehensive reorganization,  particularly  affecting  the  upper  part 
of  the  school  system. 

This  movement  has  in  general  taken  the  form  of  a  six-grade 
elementary  education,  followed  by  six  grades  of  secondary  educa- 
tion, the  latter  being  divided  into  two  departments  commonly 
denominated  "junior"  and  "senior"  high  schools.  In  Virginia, 
with  its  eleven-grade  school  course,  the  movement  has  already 
found  exemplification  in  the  junior    and  senior  high  schools 


228  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

of  Richmond  and  Roanoke,  and  the  reorganization  has  been 
advocated  by  the  State  Board  and  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation. 

The  latest  report  of  the  Supervisor  of  High  Schools  contains 
the  following  statements: 

"Ordinarily,  in  systems  of  schools  with  eight  elementry  grades, 
we  find  the  introduction  of  the  junior  high  school  resulting  in  the 
organization  of  elementry  schools  of  six  grades,  junior  high  schools  of 
three  grades,  and  senior  high  schools  of  three  grades — the  so-called 
6-3-3  plan.  In  Virginia,  along  with  many  other  States  in  the  South, 
we  have  only  seven  elementry  grades,  and  the  junior  high  school  of  the 
rural  districts,  therefore,  will  embrace  the  seventh  elementary  grade, 
and  the  eighth  and  ninth  high  school  grades."     .... 

The  State  Board  of  Education  has  abandoned  its  triple  standards 
of  First,  Second  and  Third  Class  high  schools,  and  in  the  future  will 
standardize  only  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools.  High  schools 
that  do  not  correspond  to  either  of  these  two  types  should  seek,  as 
soon  as  possible,  to  conform  to  one  of  the  two  types  of  organization. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  State  Supervisor  and 
the  State  Board  of  Education  are  right  in  providing  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  School  system.  A  change  is  imperative. 
The  Survey  Staff  does  not  believe,  however,  that  State  Super- 
visor and  the  State  Board  are  right  in  providing  for  a  six- 
three-two  organization,  but  recommends  for  the  present  a  five 
three-three  organization,  later  to  be  converted  into  a  six-three- 
three  system. 

Reasons  for  the  modification  of  the  State  Board's  plan  are 
as  follows : 

(1).  At  present  the  median  age  of  white  children  in  the  sixth 
grade  of  non-city  schools  is  approximately  thirteen,  in  the 
seventh  grade,  fourteen  and  a  half,  and  in  the  first  grade  of  the 
high  school  nearly  fifteen.1  The  junior  high  school  should 
enroll  children  before  the  upper  age  limit  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance is  reached,  and  before  the  forces  of  elimination  are  strong. 
At  present,  this  would  mean  that  the  junior  high  school  should 
begin  when  children  are  less  than  fourteen.  If  it  begins  at  the 
seventh  grade  its  beginning  would  practically  coincide  with  the 
end  of  compulsory  attendance,  and  the  influence  of  the  break 
in  the  school  system  would  only  add  one  more  factor  to  elimination. 
At  present  nearly  nine-tenths  of  non-city  white  pupils  remain 

•    Sec  Table  21. 


School  Organization  229 

in  school  up  to  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  only  a  little  over  three 
quarters  remain  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen.1 

(2).  At  present  from  85  to  89  per  cent  of  white  children 
remain  in  school  for  at  least  six  years,  but  only  71  or  72  per 
cent  for  seven  years.2  With  the  large  amount  of  retardation 
now  found,  this  means  that  relatively  few  children  reach  the 
seventh  grade  and  would  never  come  under  the  influence  of  the 
junior  high  school  if  it  began  with  the  seventh  grade. 

(3).  At  present  about  eighty-seven  per  cent  of  white  pupils 
reach  the  sixth  grade,  but  about  seventy  per  cent  only  reach 
the  seventh  grades 

(4).  In  rural  districts  a  junior  school  covering  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades  would  enroll  much  fewer  pupils  than 
one  covering  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  (in  the 
present  eleven-grade  course),  and  reasonably  sized  grades  are 
essential  for  effective  high  school  work. 

(5).  The  6-3-2  plan  would  reduce  the  senior  high  school  to 
two  grades  of  instruction,  preventing  effective  organization 
and  administration. 

(6).  The  5-3-3  plan  is  recommended  for  the  present  (instead 
of  the  6-3-3  plan)  only  because  the  Survey  Staff  does  not 
believe  in  suggesting  too  extensive  reorganization  at  one  time. 
Eventually,  and  in  the  near  future,  Virginia  should  adopt  the 
practice  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country  except  the  South,  and 
provide  an  education  for  children  from  the  ages  of  six  to  eigh- 
teen. When  that  is  done  the  twelve  grades  of  instruction  should 
be  organized  on  the  6-3-3  plan. 

By  many  teachers  and  school  officers  in  Virginia  it  has  been 
suggested  that  no  definite  restrictions  be  set  for  the  division 
of  the  five  grades  of  secondary  education  afforded  under  the 
reorganization,  but  that  various  combinations  be  permitted 
so  that  systems  might  be  organized  on  a  6-3-2,  6-2-3,  6-4-1  or 
other  plan,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  districts.     It 

i  See  Table  21. 
*  See  Table  18. 
»    See  Table  20. 


230  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

should  be  obvious  that  any  desirable  degree  of  standardization 
would  be  impossible  under  such  conditions.  Whatever  organi- 
zation be  preferable,  it  should  be  made  standard. 

In  its  complete  form  the  school  organization  proposed  by  the 
Survey  Staff  would  include  for  any  county  or  city  the  provisions 
outlined  below: 

(1).  A  number  of  five-grade  (later  to  be  converted  into 
six-grade)  elementary  schools  distributed  according  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  population  much  as  at  present,  but  with  greater 
consolidation; 

(2).  A  much  smaller  number  of  three-grade  junior  high 
schools  so  distributed  as  to  permit  the  grouping  of  upper  grade 
pupils  coming  from  several  different  elementary  schools; 

(3).  A  still  smaller  number  of  senior  high  schools  receiving 
pupils  from  several  junior  high  schools. 

Diagrammatically  the  organization  for  any  one  region  may 
be  represented  as  in  Figure. 

Elementary  Schools 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,     6,  7,  8,  9,  10,     11,  12,  13,  14,  15 

Junior  High  Schools 1 2 3 

Senior  High  Schools 1 

Thus  elementary  schools  numbers  1,2,  3,  4,  and  5  would  con- 
tribute their  sixth  grade  pupils  to  junior  high  school  number  1, 
and  junior  high  schools  numbers  1,  2,  and  3  would  contribute 
their  ninth  grade  pupils  to  senior  high  school  number  1.  In 
cities  the  elementary  schools,  junior  high  schools,  and  senior 
high  schools  are  ordinarily  housed  in  separate  buildings.  In 
rural  districts  smaller  schools  will  house  the  first  five  grades 
only,  larger  schools  will  house  elementary  grades  and  junior 
high  school  grades,  while  the  largest  schools  will  house  all 
eleven  grades. 

Obviously  topographical  conditions,  the  distribution  of  popu- 
lation, and  other  factors  must  determine  in  large  measure  the 
articulation  of  schools  under  the  proposed  reorganization  as 
under  any  form  of  school  organization.  No  form  of  organiza- 
tion can  eliminate  the  inherent  difficulties  of  education  and 


School  Organization  231 

school  administration  in  sparsely  settled  districts.  The  best 
that  can  be  done  is  to  minimize  such  necessary  disadvantages 
as  much  as  possible.  That  can  best  be  done  under  the  proposed 
reorganization.  In  the  judgment  of  the  survey  staff  the  alter- 
native is  a  perpetuation  of  the  intolerable  conditions  outlined 
in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  school  system  be  reorganized  for  the  present 
so  as  to  provide,  as  outlined  in  this  chapter:  (a)  elementary 
education  consisting  for  the  present  of  five  grades  of  instruc- 
tion; (b)  junior  high  school  education,  consisting  of  three  grades 
of  instruction  in  grades  six,  seven,  and  eight;  (c)  senior  high 
school  education  consisting  of  three  grades  of  instruction  in 
grades  nine,  ten  and  eleven. 

2.  That  in  due  time,  and  after  the  above  reorganization 
has  been  accomplished,  the  school  course  be  lengthened  to 
twelve  grades  by  extending  elementary  instruction  to  include 
six  grades. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SCHOOL  BUILDINGS,  GROUNDS  AND  EQUIPMENT 

THE  selection  of  school  sites,  the  development  of  school 
grounds,  the  construction  and  care  of  school  buildings,  and 
provision  for  material  equipment,  are  vital  factors  affecting 
the  efficiency  of  education  and  the  health  of  pupils. 

What  are  the  conditions  in  Virginia?  Are  school  sites  well 
selected?  Are  grounds  of  proper  character  provided?  Are 
buildings  well  planned  and  well  constructed?  Are  buildings 
and  grounds  well  cared  for?    Is  the  proper  equipment  supplied? 

In  an  attempt  to  secure  information  which  would  answer 
these  questions  members  of  the  Survey  Staff  by  personal  visits 
investigated  about  six  hundred  non-city  school  buildings  of 
various  types  in  eighteen  counties  and  nearly  all  city  school 
buildings.  The  results  of  those  investigations  are  discussed 
briefly  in  this  chapter.1 

A. — NON-CITY  SCHOOLS 

In  Tables  104  to  107  are  presented  figures  showing  the 
ratings  assigned  to  574  non-city  schools  of  Virginia  with  respect 
to  various  items.  Those  ratings  are  analyzed  and  discussed  in 
some  detail  in  following  sections  which  deal  with  special  phases 
of  the  school  plant.  In  anticipation,  however,  and  as  rough 
measures  of  the  school  plant  as  a  whole,  we  may  note  the  fol- 
lowing facts  indicated  by  the  summarizing  figures  presented  in 
Table  108: 

(1).  One-half  of  the  aggregate  of  ratings  assigned  to  one- 
room  schools  for  white  children  and  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
aggregate  of  ratings  assigned  to  one-room  schools  for  colored 
children  are  D  or  E  indicating  for  various  items  total  absence, 
complete  defect,  or  very  unsatisfactory  provision. 

(2).  As  larger  schools  are  considered  conditions  improve 
noticeably.    One-room  buildings  are  the  poorest. 


1    See  note  at  close  of  this  chapter  concerning  the  methods  employed. 


Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment  233 

(3).  Of  all  ratings  assigned  to  all  non-city  schools  for  white 
children  more  than  one-third  were  D  or  E  and  of  all  ratings 
assigned  to  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  nearly  three- 
fifths  were  D  or  E. 

(4).  Of  all  ratings  assigned  to  all  non-city  schools  for  white 
children  about  one-sixth  were  E  and  of  all  ratings  assigned  to 
all  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  approximately  one- 
third  were  E — indicating  total  defect  or  complete  absence  of 
the  items  involved. 

Obviously  these  figures  for  the  aggregates  of  ratings  assigned 
can  give  a  rough  indication  only  of  the  general  situation,  since 
in  those  aggregates  the  relative  importance  of  various  items  is 
ignored.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  consider  separately  the 
various  groups  of  items.    This  is  done  below. 

I. — GROUPS  AND  SITES 

Recognized  standards  for  the  size  of  school  grounds  and 
standards  accepted  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  require 
at  least  two  acres  of  land  for  one-room  or  two-room  schools. 
In  Table  109  are  presented  figures  showing  the  number  of 
schools  with  grounds  of  various  sizes  in  1917  (latest  available 
figures  for  the  State  as  a  whole.)  Those  figures  show:  (a)  that 
only  18  per  cent  of  non-city  schools  have  grounds  of  two  acres 
or  more  each,  (b)  that  nearly  one-third  of  all  non-city  schools 
have  each  less  than  one  acre  of  land,  and  (c)  that  about  one- 
sixth  of  all  non-city  schools  have  less  than  one-half  acre  of 
land. 

Space  is  not  available  here  to  present  in  detail  all  the  argu- 
ments which  demand  better  provision  for  school  grounds.  It 
must  suffice  to  point  out,  (a)  that  the  arguments  have  had  suffi- 
cient force  to  establish  a  minimum  standard  of  two  acres  of 
land  for  schools  in  most  states  of  the  country,  (b)  that  such  a 
standard  is  recognized  as  valid  by  the  Virginia  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  and  (c)  that  proper  provision  for  physical 
education  and  play,  for  school  gardens,  and  instruction  in  agri- 
culture, and  for  the  proper  setting  of  buildings,  outhouses,  etc., 
requires  not  less  than  two  acres  of  land.  In  cities  available 
sites,  the  cost  of  land,  and  other  factors  frequently  render 


234  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

difficult,  if  not  impossible,  proper  provision  for  school  grounds. 
This  is  not  true,  however,  for  non-city  districts  and  there  can 
be  no  justification  for  the  inadequate  grounds  now  provided  in 
most  parts  of  the  State. 

In  Tables  104  to  107  are  presented  figures  showing  the 
ratings  assigned  to  schools  with  respect  to  the  general  character 
of  school  grounds  (natural  features  considered  with  due  regard 
to  the  selection  of  site  as  conditioned  by  surrounding  territory), 
the  condition  of  grounds  (artificial  conditions  as  affected  by 
provision  for  its  care),  and  the  accessibility  of  the  school.  Those 
figures  indicate  that  sites  have  been  chosen  with  reasonably 
satisfactory  care  from  the  view  point  of  natural  features  of  the 
territory  and  accessibility.  In  some  cases  it  was  apparent  to 
the  investigators  that  proper  judgment  was  not  exercised,  but 
on  the  whole  the  problem  of  suitable  sites  had  been  met  reason- 
ably well.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  should  be  noted  that 
the  rating  A  with  respect  to  "accessibility"  was  assigned  to 
schools  where  no  pupil  had  to  walk  more  than  two  miles  to 
school,  school  transportation  always  being  allowed  for.  Hence 
the  figures  presented  show  that  in  193  of  the  white  schools  and 
112  of  the  colored  schools  investigated  some  of  the  children  in 
each  case  had  to  walk  more  than  two  miles  to  school.  Thus 
importance  is  attached  to  the  problems  of  consolidation  and 
transportation  considered  in  Chapter  XV. 

II. — BUILDINGS 

The  story  of  schoolhouse  construction  and  care  is  told  in 
Tables  104  to  107.  The  outstanding  facts  shown  may  be  sum- 
marized here. 

(1).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  only  230  were 
of  a  general  plan  which  could  justify  ratings  of  A,  B,  or  C — i.e., 
were  at  all  satisfactory,  while  113  were  barely  possible  under  the 
lowest  permissible  standards  and  64  were  apparently  built  with 
almost  total  disregard  of  school  needs.  The  conditions  are  con- 
spicuously worst  in  one-room  schools. 

(2).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  only  44 
were  of  a  general  plan  at  all  satisfactory,  while  123  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E.  Of  the  one-room  buildings  for  colored  chil- 
dren 97  out  of  112  investigated  received  D  or  E  ratings. 


Wild  Cat  School.    Wise  County. 


Ebenezer.    Smyth  County. 


Eastville.    Northampton  County. 
BUILDINGS  OF  THE     A-B"  TYPE. 


Rough  and  Ready.    Rockbridge  County. 


Washington  Academy.    Amelia  County. 


Ottoman  High  School.    Lancaster  County. 
BUILDINGS  OF  THE     D-E"  TYPE. 


Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment  235 

(3).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  183  make 
no  provision  for  cloakrooms  and  in  one-room  schools  114  out  of 
164  make  no  such  provision. 

(4).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  117  make  no 
provision  for  cloakrooms  and  in  one-room  schools  90  out  of 
112  make  no  such  provision. 

(5).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  116  were 
assigned  ratings  of  only  D  or  E  with  respect  to  provision  for 
heating.1 

(7).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  194  received 
ratings  of  only  D  or  E  with  respect  to  provision  for  ventilation.1 

(8).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  136  received 
ratings  of  only  D  or  E  with  respect  to  provision  for  ventilation.1 

(9).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  181  provide 
each  window  space  equal  to  not  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  of 
the  floor  space  and  78  provide  not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of 
window  space.2 

(10).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  133  have 
each  window  space  equal  to  not  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  of 
the  floor  space  and  82  provide  not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of 
window  space.2 

(11).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  141  have 
windows  so  arranged  as  to  interfere  with  instruction  and  to 
endanger  the  eyesight  of  pupils.3 

(12).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  129  have 
windows  so  arranged  as  to  interfere  with  instruction  and  to 
endanger  the  eyesight  of  pupils.3 

(13).  More  than  one-quarter  of  all  school  buildings  for  white 
children  received  ratings  of  D  or  E  with  respect  to  condition  of 
repair — showing  great  neglect  of  school  property. 

(14).  Between  one-third  and  one-half  of  all  school  buildings 
for  colored  children  show  great  neglect  with  respect  to  condi- 
tions of  repair. 

1    For  further  discussion  see  Chapter  XII. 

1    The  State  law  requires  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent.    That  is  too 
high.    Twenty  per  cent,  is  the  usual  standard.    See  Chapter  XII, 
«    See  Chapter  XII. 


236  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(15).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  102  (one- 
quarter)  received  ratings  of  only  Dor  E  with  respect  to  provision 
for  water  supply.1 

(16).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  59  received 
ratings  of  only  D  or  E  with  respect  to  provision  for  water  supply.1 

(17).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  133  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E  for  toilet  facilities  and  191  received  ratings  of 
D  or  E  for  the  condition  of  toilets.1 

(18).  Of  167  school  buildings  for  colored  children  87  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E  for  toilet  facilities  and  93  received  ratings  of 
D  or  E  for  condition  of  toilets.1 

(19).  Of  407  school  buildings  for  white  children  248  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E  for  fuel  storage  facilities  and  191  made  no  such 
provision. 

(20).  Of  167  schools  for  colored  children  123  received  ratings 
of  D  or  E  for  fuel  storage  facilities  and  no  such  provision  at  all 
was  made  in  104  of  those  schools. 

In  view  of  these  facts  one  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
in  very  large  proportion  non-city  school  buildings  are  badly 
planned,  are  improperly  constructed,  and  receive  inadequate  care 
after  erection.  Naturally  conditions  vary  widely  in  different 
parts  of  the  State  or  in  different  districts  of  the  same  county. 
In  some  counties  buildings  are  almost  uniformly  satisfactory; 
in  others  thay  are  almost  uniformly  bad.  In  the  judgment  of 
the  State  supervisors  who  co-operated  in  this  building  investiga- 
tion the  conditions  found  in  the  eighteen  counties  intensively 
surveyed  are  truly  representative  of  conditions  in  the  State  as 
a  whole. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  added  that  the  bad  conditions 
found  are  not  confined  to  old  buildings.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  buildings  erected  within  the  past  five  years  manifest  an 
almost  total  disregard  of  standards  and  should  never  have  been 
permitted. 

Where  does  the  difficulty  lie  in  securing  good  school  buildings? 
The  State  law  sets  up  for  school  buildings  standards  which  in 
general  are  in  accord  with  recognized  standards  and  good  prac- 


»    See   Chapter  XII. 


Radium    Colored  ,  erected  1918.    Greensville  County. 


Caldwell,  erected  1918.    Giles  County. 


Woodville    Colored  ,  erected  1915.    Henrico  County. 
RECENTLY  ERECTED  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS. 

Code,  Section  1489.  "Xo  school  house  shall  be  contracted  for  or  erected  until  the 
site,  location,  plans  and  specifications  therefor  shall  have  been  submitted  to  and 
approved  in  writing  by  the  division  superintendent  of  schools,  whose  action  in  each 
case  si  all  be  reported  by  him  to  the  State  Board  of  Education." 


Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment  237 

tice:  e.g.,  (a)  the  law  forbids  the  contracting  for  or  erection  of 
school  houses  unless  the  site,  location,  plans  and  specifications 
are  first  submitted  to  and  approved  in  writing  by  the  division 
superintendent;  (b)  the  law  provides  that  the  division  superin- 
tendent shall  not  approve  any  plans  for  school  buildings  or 
additions  thereto  unless  proper  provisions  are  made  for  size  of 
rooms,  ventilation,  fire  protection,  adequacy  of  window  lighting, 
arrangement  of  window  lighting,  sanitary  toilets,  etc.1 

The  difficulty  lies,  not  in  the  standards  which  are  set  by  the 
statutes  and  the  regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
but  in  the  facts:  (a)  that  local  school  authorities  ignore  those 
standards  and  violate  at  least  the  intent  of  the  law;  (b)  that 
division  superintendents  in  many  cases  neglect  their  sworn 
duties;  (c)  that  effective  penalties  for  violations  either  are  not 
provided  or  are  not  enforced. 

The  obvious  remedy  is  found  in  an  enforcement  of  the  present 
law  and  such  amendments  to  that  law  as  will  ensure  its  effec- 
tiveness. Particularly  important  here  is  the  need  for  such 
supervision  of  buildings  as  may  make  possible  the  enforcement 
of  the  law.  To  that  end  the  Survey  Staff  recommends  that  a 
supervisor  of  school  buildings  and  grounds  be  added  to  the 
staff  of  the  State  Department  of  Education. 

III. — EQUIPMENT  AND  ACCESSORIES 

In  Tables  104  to  107  are  presented  figures  showing  the  ratings 
given  to  certain  equipment  and  accessories  in  non-city  schools. 
The  principal  facts  disclosed  by  those  figures  may  be  summa- 
rized here. 

(1).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  children  187  either 
provide  no  desks  at  all  for  teachers  or  desks  practically  useless 
for  necessary  purposes.  Of  162  one-room  schools  108  manifested 
such  neglect. 

(2).  Of  167  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  143  either 
provide  no  desks  for  teachers  or  desks  practically  useless.  Of 
112  one-room  schools  103  manifested  such  neglect. 

(3).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  children  116  provided 
pupils'desks  almost  wholly  unfit  for  use.  Of  162  one-room 
schools  72  manifested  such  neglect. 

1    Revised  Code  Section  673. 


238  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(4).  Of  167  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  125  provided 
pupils'  desks  almost  or  wholly  unfit  for  use.  Of  112  one-room 
buildings  91  manifested  such  neglect. 

(5).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  pupils  111  had  pupils' 
desks  badly  arranged  to  permit  the  proper  direction  of  lighting 
and  with  proper  regard  to  blackboards  and  other  instructional 
needs. 

(6).  Of  148  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  82  had 
pupils'  desks  badly  arranged. 

(7).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  children  231  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E  with  respect  to  provisions  for  maps,  globes  and, 
charts — indicating  no  provision  or  practically  useless  material.1 

(8).  Of  167  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  151  received 
ratings  of  Dor E  with  respect  to  provisions  for  maps, globes  and 
charts.1 

(9).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  children  157  received 
ratings  of  D  or  E  for  blackboards — indicating  no  provision  or 
practically  useless  equipment.1 

(10).  Of  167  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  130  have 
either  no  blackboards  or  blackboards  practically  useless.1 

(11).  Of  407  non-city  schools  for  white  children  242  had 
either  no  window  shades  or  shades  practically  useless. 

(12).  Of  167  non-city  schools  for  colored  children  132  had 
either  no  window  shades  or  shades  practically  useless. 

Comment  on  the  facts  disclosed  by  these  figures  would  be 
superfluous.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  very  large  propor- 
tion the  non-city  schools  of  Virginia  lack  even  the  minimum 
essentials  of  equipment  necessary  for  instruction  and  school 
room  management. 

B. — CITY  SCHOOLS 

In  Tables  110  and  111  are  presented  figures  showing  the 
scores  on  the  Strayer  Scale  assigned  to  102  city  school  buildings 
for  white  children  and  to  38  city  school  buildings  for  colored 
children.2    They  are  summarized  in  Table  112. 


1    See   Chapter   V. 

1    For  a  description  of  the  methods  employed  in  scoring  city  school 
buildings,  see  the  note  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 


Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment  239 

From  those  figures  the  following  facts  may  be  learned : 

(1).  Two-fifths  of  all  city  school  buildings  for  white  children 
were  assigned  scores  between  800  and  980.  This  means  that  these 
are  good  buildings  and  compare  very  favorably  with  school 
buildings  above  the  average  in  other  states. 

(2).  No  city  school  building  for  colored  children  received  a 
rating  above  900  and  only  two  such  buildings  were  rated  above 
800.  In  all  probability  the  colored  school  now  in  process  of 
construction  at  Petersburg  will  easily  be  worthy  of  a  score  above 
900. 

(3).  Nearly  one-half  of  all  city  school  buildings  for  white 
children  received  a  rating  of  between  600  and  800.  Of  those 
buildings  26  received  ratings  of  700  to  800  points  and  may  be 
considered  as  of  approximately  average  grade,  while  24  received 
ratings  of  600  to  700  points  and  must  be  considered  as  notice- 
ably below  average. 

(4).  Of  city  school  buildings  for  colored  children  11  (29  per 
cent)  were  rated  between  700  and  800  and  may  be  considered 
as  of  above  average  quality  while  5  were  rated  between  600 
and  700  and  must  be  considered  below  average. 

(5).  Of  city  school  buildings  for  white  children  11  were  rated 
below  600  and  must  be  considered  as  markedly  defective. 

(6).  Of  all  city  school  buildings  for  colored  children  about 
one-half  were  rated  below  600  and  must  be  considered  markedly 
defective.  At  least  six  city  school  buildings  for  colored  children, 
and  probably  several  more,  are  public  disgraces  and  should  be 
condemned  at  once. 

Detailed  consideration  of  city  school  buildings  is  here  impos- 
sible ;  cities  vary  widely  in  the  character  of  the  school  buildings 
provided  and  even  within  cities  great  variability  is  manifest. 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  provide  the  best  school  buildings 
and  Petersburg  easily  leads  the  State. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  section  824  of  the  Code,  as  amended  by  the  Acts  of 
Assembly,  1912,  page  78,  be  further  amended  so  as  to  provide 
that  when  application  is  made  to  the  judge  of  the  circuit  court 


240  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

for  the  appointment  of  an  attorney  to  examine  the  title  of  land 
that  it  is  proposed  to  purchase  for  school  uses,  that  such  ap- 
pointment be  not  made  unless  and  until  the  division  superin- 
tendent shall  have  filed  in  writing  his  approval  of  the  site  which 
it  is  proposed  to  purchase. 

2.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  adopt  a  regulation 
requiring  not  less  than  two  acres  of  ground  for  each  building 
hereafter  erected,  provided  that  for  reason  the  State  Board  of 
Education  may  waive  this  requirement. 

3.  That  a  law  be  enacted  making  it  illegal  for  any  school 
board  to  issue  a  warrant  in  payment  for  the  erection  or  remodel- 
ing of  any  school  building  until  the  division  superintendent  has 
certified  to  the  clerk  of  the  board  in  writing  to  the  effect  that 
he  had  examined  and  approved  the  plans  and  specifications  for 
the  proposed  building  or  remodeling. 

4.  That  a  law  be  enacted  requiring  that  20%  of  the  contract 
price  of  every  building  erected  for  school  purposes  be  with-held 
until  there  is  filed  a  statement  in  writing  from  a  duly  author- 
ized representative  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  the  effect 
that  he  had  examined  the  building  and  found  it  to  be  according 
to  the  plans  and  specifications  and  that  the  workmanship  is 
satisfactory. 

5.  That  a  Supervisor  of  Buildings  be  employed  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  inspection 
of  plans  and  specifications  for  school  buildings  and  the  inspec- 
tion of  same  when  erected  and  that  it  be  illegal  for  any  building 
to  be  erected  until  his  approval  of  the  plans  and  specifications 
is  filed  in  writing  with  the  division  superintendent. 

6.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  adopt  regulations 
fixing  certain  minimum  standards  for  school  building  equip- 
ment with  suitable  provisions  to  ensure  the  presence  of  such 
equipment  in  all  buildings  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

NOTE  ON  THE  METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  RATING  THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 

For  the  intensive  investigation  of  non-city  school  buildings 
eighteen  counties  were  selected  on  the  basis  of  all  records  available. 
The  counties  selected  were  Albemarle,  Amelia,  Appomattox,  Caroline, 
Carroll,  Charlotte,  Giles,  Greensville,  Henrico,  Henry,  Isle  of  Wight, 
Lancaster,   Northampton,    Rockbridge,    Rockingham,  Smyth,  Stafford 


Buildings,  Grounds  and  Equipment  241 

and  Wise.  Those  counties  contain  834  white  schools  and  303  colored 
schools — total  1,137.  Of  those  -407  white  schools  and  167  colored  schools 
were  investigated — total  574.  Care  was  taken  to  include  typical 
one-room  schools,  two-room  schools,  three-room  schools,  and  schools 
having  four  or  more  rooms  in  proper  proportion.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  schools  investigated  are  fairly  representative  of  non- 
city  schools  throughout  the  State. 

The  various  items  of  the  school  plant  rated  by  the  investigators 
are  shown  in  Table  104.  They  were  rated  each  on  a  scale  of  A,  B,  C, 
D  or  E  as  indicated  in  that  table.  In  general,  those  ratings  may  be 
interpreted  roughly  as  follows :  A  indicates  that  for  the  item  involved 
the  school  is  thoroughly  acceptable  and  meets  well  good  standards  as 
recognized  throughout  the  country;  E  indicates  that  for  the  item 
involved  proper  provision  is  either  lacking  or  thorouthly  unsatis- 
factory;  C  indicates  a  condition  average-fair;  B  and  D  indicate  condi- 
tions intermediate  between  A  and  C  or  between  C  and  E  respec- 
tively; D  commonly  indicates  conditions  approaching  those  thoroughly 
unacceptable. 

The  staff  of  building  examiners  included  four  of  the  State  super- 
visors, four  members  of  the  faculties  of  State  normal  schools, 
and  Mr.  Jackson  Davis,  Field  Agent  for  the  General  Education  Board. 
All  of  these  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  State  conditions.  In  their 
judgement  the  schools  investigated  are  representative  of  schools 
throughout  the   State. 

To  ensure  all  possible  uniformity  in  rating  by  the  different  exam- 
iners definite  specifications  were  set  for  rating  each  item  and  two  days 
were  spent  in  a  preliminary  rating  of  several  buildings  by  the  entire 
staff,  each  examiner  rating  each  school  independently.  Those  inde- 
pendent ratings  were  then  compared  and  provision  made  to  eliminate 
individual  variations  in  grading  as  far  as  possible.  In  the  judgment  of 
the  examining  staff  the  individual  variations  of  staff  members  were 
reduced  to  a  minimum  and  the  ratings  given  by  different  investigators 
are  reasonably  uniform. 

City  school  buildings  were  investigated  by  four  members  of  the 
Survey  Staff.  The  Strayer  Score  Card  for  City  School  Buildings  was 
employed,  with  certain  modifications  for  some  smaller  buildings. 

By  that  method  a  perfect  score  for  any  building  is  set  at  1,000 
points,  with  definite  specifications  for  all  the"  various  items  involved  in 
provision  for  a  perfect  city  school  building.  This  method  has  been 
employed  in  a  great  many  cities  of  the  country  and  reasonably  accu- 
rate standards  have  been  established. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

STATE  ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

IN  Virginia,  as  in  thirty-six  other  States  of  the  Union,  the 
public  school  system  is  administered  through  centralized 
State  agencies  which  include  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  State 
Department  of  Education. 

i. THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

Provision  for  the  State  Board  of  Education  is  found  in  section 
130  of  the  State  Constitution  adopted  in  1902. 

"The  general  supervision  of  the  school  system  shall  be  vested 
in  a  State  Board  of  Education,  composed  of  the  Governor,  Attorney- 
General,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  three  experienced 
educators,  to  be  elected  quadrennially  by  the  Senate,  from  a  list  of 
eligibles,  consisting  of  one  from  each  of  the  faculties,  and  nominated 
by  the  respective  boards  of  visitors  or  trustees  of  the  University  of 
Virgini  i,  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  the  Virginia  Polytechnic 
Institute,  the  State  Female  Normal  School  at  Farmville,  the  School  for 
the  Deaf  and  Blind,  and  also  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  so 
long  as  the  State  continues  its  annual  appropriation  to  the  last  named 
institution. 

"The  board  thus  constituted  shall  select  and  associate  with  itself 
two  division  superintendents  of  schools,  one  from  a  county  and  the 
other  from  a  city,  who  shall  hold  office  for  two  years,  and  whose  powers 
and  duties  shall  be  identical  with  those  of  other  members,  except  that 
they  shall  not  participate  in  the  appointment  of  any  public  school 
official. 

"Any  vacancy  occurring  during  the  term  of  any  member  of  the 
board  shall  be  filled  for  the  unexpired  term  by  said  board." 

Thus  the  State  Board  of  Education  is  composed  of  eight 
members,  chosen  in  three  different  ways — three  being  ex-officio 
members  and  owing  their  position  on  the  board  to  popular  vote 
for  other  offices,  three  being  chosen  by  the  Senate  from  nomi- 
nated members  of  the  faculties  of  State  institutions,  and  two 
being  chosen  by  those  six  ex-officio  and  representative  members. 

According  to  accepted  standards  and  best  practice,  the 
method  at  present  employed  for  the  organization  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  in  Virginia  is  open  to  severe  criticism  in  the 
following  respects. 


State  Organization  and  Administration  243 

(1).  With  its  present  organization  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion as  a  whole  has  no  official  responsibility  either  directly  to 
the  people  or  indirectly  to  them  through  any  single  branch  of 
the  State  government.  Of  the  three  ex-officio  members  the 
State  Superintendent  is  directly  responsible  to  the  people, 
while  the  governor  and  attorney-general  are  also  responsible 
to  the  people  but  primarily  for  duties  other  than  those  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Board  of  Education.  On  the  other  hand,  the  repre- 
sentative members  of  the  board  owe  responsibility  directly  to 
the  Senate  and  to  the  trustees  of  their  respective  institutions. 
Finally,  the  two  division  superintendents  as  members  of  the 
board  owe  direct  responsibility  to  the  other  six  members  of  the 
board  and  (perhaps  more  practically  than  theoretically)  to  the 
citizens  of  their  own  divisions.  It  would  be  difficult  to  devise  a 
plan  by  which  the  definite  location  of  responsibility  could  be 
more  completely  obscured. 

(2).  With  the  exception  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  the  ex-officio  members  of  the  Board  owe 
their  position  thereon  to  election  on  the  basis  of  fitness  for  other 
governmental  duties.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  they  will 
always  be  men  well  suited  for  membership  on  that  board  or 
especially  interested  in  the  work  of  the  public  schools. 

(3).  Ex-officio  membership  always  means  the  presence  on 
the  board  of  men  who  owe  their  position  to  political  factors. 
That  does  not  mean  that  such  members  are  necessarily  affected 
by  political  influences  in  their  board  activities,  but  it  does  mean 
that  the  practice  makes  possible  the  introduction  of  political 
influence  in  educational  matters.  Instances  have  not  been 
unknown  in  Virginia. 

(4).  The  presence  of  institutional  representatives  on  the 
board  is  contrary  to  sound  policy  because:  (a)  it  violates  a 
fundamental  principle  of  governmental  administration  by  per- 
mitting institutional  representatives  to  participate  in  the  deter- 
mination of  State  educational  policies  which  may  easily  affect 
their  own  institutions  (e.g.,  policies  involving  teacher  training 
and  certification,  the  standards  for  accrediting  high  schools); 
(b)  it  is  based  on  the  theory  that  a  State  Board  of  Education 
should  be  in  part  an  "expert"  board,  and  on  the  assumption 


244  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

that  college  officers  are  commonly  "experts"  in  public  school 
education  and  its  administration — neither  of  which  assump- 
tions is  sound.  All  modern  standards  call  for  a  "lay"  board  of 
education. 

(5).  Provision  for  the  presence  of  division  superintendents 
on  the  board  further  violates  the  principle  that  the  board  should 
be  "lay"  rather  than  "expert"  or  representative.  It  also  violates 
the  principle  that  "special  interests"  should  not  participate  in 
the  determination  of  State  policies  designed  to  control  their 
own  activities. 

(6).  Accepted  standards  and  the  best  practice  demand  that 
the  State  Superintendent  should  not  be  a  member,  much  less 
the  presiding  officer,  of  the  State  Board.1 

(7).  Experience  throughout  the  country  has  shown  that  the 
continuity  of  educational  policies  and  efficiency  in  administra- 
tion are  best  conserved  when  membership  on  the  State  Board 
is  so  arranged  that  its  change  is  gradual  rather  than  periodic. 
This  is  accomplished  by  providing  for  a"revolving"  board,  i.e., 
a  board  the  members  of  which  enter  and  leave  office  at  different 
times.  Under  present  provisions  the  membership  of  the  State 
Board  tends  to  remain  relatively  constant  for  four  years  (except 
for  the  two  division  superintendents)  and  then  to  change 
abruptly,  except  as  the  members  may  be  reappointed.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  a  "revolving"  board  in  Virginia. 

(8).  Any  board  composed  of  an  even  number  of  members  is 
undesirable  because  of  the  difficulties  of  a  tie  vote  on  any  impor- 
tant question.2 

Of  the  thirty-eight  States  which  have  State  boards  of  educa- 
tion eight  have  ex-officio  boards.  Of  the  other  States  twenty- 
eight  have  appointed  boards,  twenty-two  giving  the  appointive 
power  to  the  Governor,  four  giving  it  to  the  State  legislature, 
one  giving  it  to  popular  vote,  and  one  State  giving  that  power 
to  the  State  superintendent.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  commonest 
practice  is  to  eliminate  provisions  for  ex-officio  or  representa- 
tive membership  and  to  have  the  board  of  educatioD  appointed 
by  the  governor,  thereby  reducing  the  danger  of  political 
influence  and  centering  responsibility  where  it  is  definitely  and 

1  See  Section  ii.  of  this  chapter. 

2  E.  g.,  The  1915-16  deadlock  on  text-book  adoptions. 


State  Organization  and  Administration  245 

clearly  located.  The  obviously  political  possibility  that  the 
Governor  may  "pack"  the  board  may  easily  be  avoided  by 
provision  for  a  board  "revolving"  in  such  a  fashion  as  to 
preclude  the  appointment  of  a  majority  of  the  members  of  the 
board  during  the  governor's  term  of  office. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  a  revision  of  the  State  Con- 
stitution and  of  the  State  law  so  as  to  provide  for  a  State  Board 
of  Education  composed  of  seven  members,  one  to  be  appointed 
by  the  governor  each  year,  to  hold  office  for  seven  years.  That 
board  should  be  essentially  a  lay  board  exercising  general 
legislative  and  judicial  supervision  over  public  education,  and 
should  employ  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
as  its  administrative  and  executive  officer.  Its  powers  and 
duties  should  be  much  the  same  as  at  present,  except  (a)  it 
should  take  over  the  duties  of  the  present  Virginia  Normal 
School  Board  (Cf .  Chapter  VIII) ;  (b)  it  should  have  the  power 
and  duty  to  prepare  a  list  of  eligible  candidates  or  approve 
candidates  for  the  positions  of  division  superintendents,  but 
should  not  appoint  those  officers  (cf.  chapters  XIX-XX);  (c) 
it  should  have  the  power  and  duty  to  select  the  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  (cf.  section  n  of  this  chapter); 
(d)  it  should  be  limited  in  its  power  to  initiate  purely  profes- 
sional measures  or  to  interfere  directly  in  the  administration 
of  purely  professional  matters  (cf.  section  n  of  this  chapter). 

h. — THE  STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 

In  thirty-three  States  of  the  Union  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Education  is  elected  by  popular  vote,  in  ten  States  he  is 
appointed  by  the  Governor,  and  in  five  States  he  is  appointed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education.1 

In  Virginia  the  election  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 

Instruction  by  popular  vote  is  provided  for  in  section  131  of 

the  State  Constitution  (1902) . 

"The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  who  shall  be  an  exper- 
ienced educator,  shall  be  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  State 
at  the  same  time  and  for  the  same  term  as  the  Governor.  Any  vacancy 
in  said  office  shall  be  filled  for  the  unexpired  term  by  the  said  board. 
"His  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
of  which  he  shall  be  ex-officio  president;  and  his  compensation  shall 
be  fixed  by  law." 

1  Ten  States  have  no  State  Board  of  Education,  so  that  appointment 
by  the  State  is  found  in  five  of  the  thirty-eight  possible  cases. 


246  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

In  spite  of  the  rather  general  practice  of  selecting  a  State 
Superintendent  by  popular  vote  the  practice  is  unsound  in 
almost  every  way  and  is  rapidly  giving  way  to  the  practice  of 
making  the  State  Superintendency  an  appointive  office  in  the 
charge  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  the  principal  reasons 
against  the  older  practice  and  for  the  newer  being  as  follows: 

(1).  Present  practice  in  Virginia  makes  the  highest  educa- 
tional office  involving  professional  requirements  a  matter  of 
politics,  and,  as  a  necessary  result,  the  candidate  for  election 
or  re-election  to  the  superintendency  is  constantly  encouraged 
(if  not  almost  forced)  to  be  guided  in  part  by  the  dictates  of 
political  expediency  rather  than  by  the  dictates  of  sound  educa- 
tional policy.  The  present  plan  exposes  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  to  strong  political  influences,  which  must  to 
some  extent  determine  his  acts  or  interfere  with  his  duties. 

(2).  More  and  more  the  State  superintendency  is  demanding 
a  high  degree  of  professional  and  expert  services.  That  con- 
sideration is  placed  in  the  background  when  the  superintendent 
is  elected  by  the  people  on  a  political  ticket.  Success  in  securing 
election  is  dependent  less  on  the  candidate's  ability  to  admin- 
ister a  system  of  education  than  to  conduct  a  political  campaign. 
The  two  qualities  are  rarely  united  in  one  man.  Professional 
experts,  of  whom  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion is  one,  should  never  be  elected  by  popular  vote,  but  should 
be  selected  indirectly  by  the  people  through  their  representa- 
tives, who  have  the  opportunity  to  examine  and  judge  the 
candidates'  qualifications. 

(3).  Present  practice  in  Virginia  causes  a  most  peculiar  and 
undesirable  complexity  of  relations  between  the  State  Board 
of  Education  and  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. The  latter  is  elected  by  the  people;  his  duties  are  pre- 
scribed by  the  Board  (of  which  he  is  a  member  and  ex-officio 
president),  and  his  salary  is  determined  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly. Thus  the  State  Board  has  the  power  to  fix  the  duties  of 
the  State  Superintendent,  but  has  no  direct  power  to  compel 
him  to  carry  out  its  instructions.  On  the  other  hand  the  State 
Superintendent,  as  the  directly  elected  representative  of  the 
people,  and  perhaps  elected  on  the  platform  of  a  definitely 


State  Organization  and  Administration  247 

pledged  educational  program,  may  find  the  fulfilment  of  that 
pledge  absolutely  blocked  by  a  State  Board  of  Education, 
which  owes  direct  responsibility  to  no  one  in  particular. 

(4).  Arising  out  of  this  complexity  of  relations  between  the 
co-ordinate  authorities  of  the  State  Board  and  the  State  Superin- 
tendent is  the  fact  that  no  clear  line  of  distinction  is  or  can  be 
drawn  between  their  proper  duties  and  powers.  Thus,  on  the 
one  hand,  the  superintendent  is  called  upon  as  a  member  of 
the  board  to  determine  in  part  duties  which  as  superintendent 
he  is  called  upon  to  carry  out,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  State 
board  attempts  to  deal  with  the  details  of  matters  which  should 
be  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent  and  his  corps 
of  experts  in  the  Department  of  Education.  A  proper  division 
of  the  legislative  and  judicial  functions  of  the  board  and  the 
technical  and  executive  duties  of  the  superintendent  is 
impossible  under  the  present  plan. 

(5).  The  popular  election  of  a  superintendent  requires  the 
selection  of  a  resident  elector  of  the  State.  The  number  of  men 
well  qualified  to  head  the  educational  system  of  a  State  like 
Virginia  is  not  large  and  the  field  of  choice  should  not  be  unneces- 
sarily limited.  In  other  States,  (e.g. ,  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire)  it  has  sometimes  been  found  necessary  or 
desirable  to  select  a  superintendent  from  without  the  State. 
Virginia  should  be  able  to  select  the  best  man  available  wherever 
he  may  be  found. 

(6).  The  popular  election  of  the  State  superintendent  limits 
the  number  of  available  candidates  to  those  able  to  finance  a 
State-wide  political  campaign,  to  those  able  to  secure  political 
support  (seldom  without  incurring  political  obligations),  and 
to  adherents  of  the  dominant  political  party  or  faction. 

(7).  The  State  Constitution  ordains  that  the  superintend- 
ent's salary  shall  be  set  by  law.  The  law  fixes  his  salary  at 
$3,500  and  provides  that  it  shall  not  be  changed  during  the 
term  for  which  he  is  elected.  Two  criticisms  may  be  offered, 
(a)  The  salary  provided  is  too  low — actually  lower  than  the 
salaries  of  division  superintendents  in  some  cities  of  the  State. 
In  the  long  run  Virginia  cannot  hope  to  secure  and  retain  the 
services  of  a  high-grade  State  superintendent  at  a  salary  of  less 


248  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

than  five  thousand  dollars,  (b)  As  long  as  the  superintendent 
is  chosen  by  popular  election  a  definite  salary  must  be  set  by 
law  and  provision  must  be  made  to  prevent  any  change  in  that 
salary  during  the  term  for  which  he  is  elected.  Such  provisions, 
however,  necessarily  limit  the  choice  of  a  man  for  the  highest 
educational  office  in  the  State. 

In  view  of  these  facts  the  survey  staff  recommends  that  the 
State  Constitution  and  the  State  Law  be  amended  so  as  to 
provide  for  the  appointment  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  his  term 
of  office  to  be  five  years,  his  salary  to  be  determined  by  that 
board  without  restriction,  his  selection  to  be  determined  with- 
out reference  to  place  of  residence,  and  his  relation  to  the  board 
to  be  that  of  its  administrative  and  executive  officer. 

iii. THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

The  State  Department  of  Education1  in  Virginia  at  present 
comprises  the  following  staff  and  divisions: 

1.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

2.  First  clerk,  acting  as  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board 

of  Education. 

3.  Second  clerk,  acting  as  auditor-statistician  and  financial 

agent. 

4.  Assistant  clerk. 

5.  Supervisor  of  teacher  certification. 

6.  Supervisor  of  high  schools. 

7.  Supervisor  of  Agricultural  Schools.2 

8.  Supervisor  of  Trade  and  Industrial  Education.2 

9.  Supervisor  of  Home  Economics  Education  (part  time).2 

10.  Supervisor  of  Graded  Schools. 

11.  Supervisor  of  rural  white  schools. * 

12.  Supervisor  of  colored  schools.* 
Five  stenographers. 

One  messenger. 

1  Using  the  term  here  in  its  popular  and  narrower  sense  as  excluding 
the  State  Board  of  Education. 

a  Salaries  and  expenses  paid  in  part  by  the  Federal  Board  of  Voca- 
tional Education.     (Smith-Hughes). 

s    Salaries  and  expenses  paid  in  part  by  the  General  Education  Board. 


State  Organization  and  Administration  249 

Such  provision  compares  very  favorably  with  provisions  in 
other  States.  Nevertheless,  a  few  recommendations  are  impor- 
tant. 

(1).  The  conditions  of  school  buildings  shown  in  Chapter 
XVII  suggest  the  necessity  of  a  supervisor  of  school  buildings 
and  grounds  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  their  supervision. 

(2).  The  condition  of  school  hygiene,  physical  education, 
and  the  need  for  medical  inspection  suggest  the  imperative 
need  of  a  full  time  supervisor  either  entirely  under  the  direction 
of  the  State  Board  of  Education  or  in  co-operation  with  the 
State  Board  of  Health.  (Cf.  Chapter  XII). 

(3).  There  is  need  of  a  supervisor  qualified  to  deal  with  the 
problems  of  educational  tests  and  measurements  and  with  the 
problems  of  exceptional  children. 

(4).  The  Second  Auditor  of  Virginia,  elected  by  the  General 
Assembly,  and  entirely  independent  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  and  the  State  Department  of  Education,  has  vir- 
tually no  duties  other  than  accounting  for  the  school  funds  and 
keeps  a  set  of  books  practically  identical  with  the  financial 
officer  of  the  State  Department  of  Education.  Some  way 
should  be  found  to  eliminate  the  waste  caused  by  this  duplica- 
tion of  effort. 

(5).  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  encountered  in  the  man- 
agement of  school  finance  is  that  involved  in  the  handling  of 
funds  by  local  officials.  Great  confusion  is  often  involved  and 
sometimes  actual  loss  is  incurred  through  a  lack  of  uniformity 
in  accounting  through  change  in  officials,  and  occasionally 
through  the  inability  of  local  officers  to  manage  school  funds. 
The  appointment  in  the  State  Department  of  Education  of  a 
traveling  auditor  would  lead  to  much  greater  efficiency  and  in 
the  long  run  would  probably  result  in  an  actual  saving  of  money. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  Constitution  and  the  State  law  be  so 
amended  as  to  provide  for  a  State  Board  of  Education,  con- 
sisting of  seven  members  appointed  by  the  Governor,  by  and 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  one  member  of  that  board  to  be 


250  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

appointed  each  year  to  serve  for  seven  years — members  of  the 
board  to  receive  actual  expenses  for  travel,  etc.  incurred  in  the 
service  of  the  board  and  a  per  diem  allowance  of  eight  dollars. 
That  board  should  be  essentially  a  lay  board. 

2.  That  the  State  Board  thus  constituted  exercise  the  same 
duties  and  powers  as  at  present  except:  (a)  that  it  assume  the 
duties  of  the  present  State  Normal  School  Board;  (b)  that  it 
cease  to  appoint  division  superintendents,  confining  its  powers 
and  duties  to  their  approval  or  to  the  maintenance  of  a  list  of 
those  eligible  to  be  division  superintendents;  (c)  that  it  shall 
select  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction;  (d)  that 
it  be  limited  in  its  power  to  initiate  purely  professional  measures 
or  interfere  directly  with  the  administration  of  purely  profes- 
sional and  technical  matters. 

3.  That  the  State  Constitution  and  the  State  law  be  so 
amended  as  to  provide  for  the  appointment  of  the  State  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Instruction  by  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. 

4.  That  in  the  selection  of  the  State  Superintendent  the 
State  Board  be  unrestricted  by  requirements  as  to  place  of 
residence  or  the  amount  of  salary  to  be  paid. 

5.  That  the  State  Superintendent  be  a  non-voting  attendant 
at  all  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Education  (except  those  involv- 
ing his  own  tenure  of  office  or  salary)  with  power  to  initiate 
business  and  to  discuss  all  matters,  but  not  to  vote  thereon. 

6.  That  the  functions  of  the  State  Board  be  essentially 
legislative  and  judicial  and  that  the  functions  of  the  superintend- 
ent be  essentially  administrative  and  executive. 

7.  That  the  State  Department  of  Education  be  enlarged  to 
include  (a)  a  supervisor  of  buildings;  (b)  a  supervisor  of  school 
hygiene,  physical  education,  and  medical  inspection;  (c)  a 
supervisor  of  educational  tests  and  measurement  and  of  the 
education  of  exceptional  children;  (d)  a  traveling  auditor. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  IN  COUNTY 
AND  DISTRICT 

VIRGINIA  belongs  to  that  relatively  small  group  of  States 
which  provides  for  school  administration  in  non-city  dis- 
tricts through  a  combination  of  county  and  district  units  of 
organization,  and  through  administrative  agencies,  some  of 
which  represent  the  entire  county,  while  others  represent  dif- 
ferent districts  of  the  county.  Their  complex  interrelations  in 
Virginia  will  appear  in  the  following  outline  of  the  functions 
which  appertain  to:  (i)  the  School  Trustee  Electoral  Board; 
(ii)  the  District  Boards  of  School  Trustees;  (iii)  the  County 
School  Board;  (iv)  the  Division  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

i. THE  SCHOOL  TRUSTEE  ELECTORAL  BOARD 

The  central  agency  of  county  school  administration  in  Vir- 
ginia is  the  School  Trustee  Electoral  Board,  composed  of  (1) 
the  division  superintendent  (appointed  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education  and  ex-officio  clerk  of  the  Electoral  Board),  (2)  the 
Commonwealth's  Attorney  (elected  by  the  people),  (3)  one 
resident  voter  of  the  county  (appointed  by  the  judge  of  the 
Circuit  Court).  All  district  agencies  for  school  administration 
in  the  county  are  subordinate  to  this  board. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  board  is  composed  of  three  men, 
only  one  of  whom  (the  Commonwealth's  Attorney)  is  directly 
responsible  to  the  people  of  the  county,  and  that  his  responsi- 
bility is  primarily  and  principally  for  duties  other  than  those 
of  school  administration.  Further,  all  district  board  members 
are  appointed  by  this  electoral  board,  so  that  the  participation 
of  citizens  in  the  county's  school  administration  is  practically 
nil.1  Finally  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  chief  school  officer  of  the 
county  owes  no  legal  responsibility  to  the  other  school  authori- 

1  When  towns  of  500  inhabitants  constitute  a  single  school  district 
the  town  council  has  the  power  to  appoint  the  school  trustees.  (Revised 
Code,  Section  668.) 


252  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

ties  or  to  the  people  except  in  the  most  indirect  fashion  through 
the  State  Board  of  Education,  which  itself  is  responsible  to 
the  people  of  the  State  only  in  the  most  partial  and  indirect 
way. 

The  duties  of  the  County  Trustee  Electoral  Board  are  few, 
but  its  power  therein  is  absolute.  Its  primary  duty  (and  its 
principal  reason  for  existence)  is  the  appointment  of  district 
school  trustees.  Having  performed  that  duty  by  the  appoint- 
ment annually  of  one  trustee  for  each  school  district  in  the 
county  it  has  nothing  else  to  do  unless  there  arises  some  appeal 
from  the  decision  of  a  district  school  board.  When  such  an 
appeal  is  made  the  electoral  board  proceeds  to  perform  its 
second  (its  only  other  important)  duty  and  sits  as  a  judicial 
tribunal  to  pass  on  the  acts  of  its  own  appointees.  Its  decisions 
on  such  appeals  according  to  law  are  final.  The  absurdity  of 
such  a  procedure  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  acts  of  the 
district  trustees  have  in  many  cases  been  the  result  of  carrying 
out  policies  recommended  by  the  division  superintendent,  him- 
self a  member  of  the  court  of  appeals  but  owing  no  responsi- 
bility to  it. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  County  Trustee  Electoral  Boards 
exist  primarily  as  one  set  of  the  wheels  within  wheels  involved 
in  the  highly  centralized  school  organization  of  the  State  and 
were  created  largely  to  make  possible  the  present  system  of 
county-district  administration.  Below  is  recommended  a  reor- 
ganization of  county  administration  which  would  render  unnec- 
essary those  extra  hundred  boards  and  thus  eliminate  two 
hundred  superfluous  school  authorities. 

ii. — DISTRICT  BOARDS  OF  SCHOOL  TRUSTEES 

The  State  Constitution  provides  that  each  magisterial  district 
in  a  county  shall  constitute  a  separate  school  district,  unless 
otherwise  provided  by  law,  and  that  in  each  school  district 
three  school  trustees  shall  be  appointed.  The  State  law  (section 
668  of  the  Revised  Code)  provides  that  each  magisterial  district 
shall  constitute  a  separate  school  district  unless  the  State  Board 
of  Education  shall  provide  forredistricting  any  county  where  the 
interests  of  the  schools  require  it,  but  that  a  town  of  more  than 
five  hundred  inhabitants  may,  if  the  council  so  elect,  be  consti- 


Administration  in  County  and  District  253 

tuted  a  single  school  district.  It  also  makes  elaborate'  provision 
for  optional  sub-districts — which  provision,  however,  heretofore 
has  served  no  other  purpose  than  to  occupy  about  nine  pages 
of  the  code. 

As  a  general  rule  school  districts  are  co-extensive  with  the 
magisterial  districts,  the  number  ranging  from  two  districts  to 
ten  districts  to  a  county,  as  indicated  in  Table  113.  Thus  for 
schools  in  the  counties  of  the  State  there  are  498  district  boards 
and  100  trustee  electoral  boards,  or  a  total  (not  including  county 
school  boards)  of  598  separate  boards,  engaging  the  services  of 
1494  district  trustees  and  200  trustee  electoral  board  members 
(exclusive  of  division  superintendents),  or  a  total  of  1694  school 
board  members. 

Such  a  multiplicity  of  school  boards  serves  only  to  complicate 
school  administration,  to  produce  a  wide  variety  of  educational 
conditions,  and  to  cause  gross  inequalities  of  educational  oppor- 
tunity in  different  parts  of  the  same  county. 

At  present  the  district  boards  as  a  group  operate  very  ineffec- 
tively. They  constitute  the  only  local  agencies  of  administra- 
tion and  are  legally  invested  with  many  important  duties  and 
powers,  some  of  which  are  carefully  exercised  while  others  are 
conveniently  neglected,  in  spite  of  legal  provision  for  severe 
penalties  in  some  cases.  For  instance,  a  school  trustee  who 
employs  a  teacher  without  contract  or  a  proper  certificate  is 
personally  liable  to  refund  any  public  money  paid  to  that 
teacher.  Yet  division  superintendents  report  that  such  pro- 
visions are  violated  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  twenty-five 
counties.  Again,  the  law  provides  that  district  school  boards 
shall  meet  regularly  at  fixed  intervals.  Division  superintend- 
ents report  that  such  provision  is  commonly  not  observed  in 
sixty-one  counties.  Further,  the  law  provides  that  there  shall 
be  recorded  in  the  minutes  the  authorization  for  payment  of  all 
bills  and  that  on  each  warrant  shall  be  indicated  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  issued.  Division  superintendents  report  those 
provisions  as  more  or  less  commonly  ignored  in  fifty-six  counties. 
Other  important  legal  provisions  are  met  or  neglected  as 
indicated  in  Table  114. 

In  the  reorganization  of  county  administration  recommended 
in  a  later  part  of  this  chapter  all  district  school  boards  are 


254  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

eliminated,  the  total  number  of  non-city  school  boards  reduced 
from  nearly  seven  hundred  to  one  hundred,  their  membership 
reduced  from  nearly  eighteen  hundred  to  about  five  hundred, 
and  their  efficiency  greatly  increased. 

Hi. — THE  COUNTY  SCHOOL  BOARD 

The  State  law  provides  that  all  of  the  district  school  trustees 
of  a  county  acting  together  shall  constitute  a  body  corporate 
known  as  the  County  School  Board,  of  which  the  division 
superintendent  is  ex-officio  chairman.  As  shown  by  the  figures 
in  Table  113  the  size  of  a  county  school  board  varies  from  six 
to  thirty  members,  exclusive  of  the  division  superintendent. 

Modern  educational  standards  and  the  best  practice  would 
lead  one  to  the  expectation  of  finding  in  these  County  School 
Boards  the  principal  agencies  for  guiding  school  administration 
in  their  respective  counties.  As  far  as  any  legal  provisions  are 
concerned,  quite  the  contrary  is  the  case,  the  only  important 
duties  and  powers  legally  invested  in  such  boards  being  those 
which  deal  with  school  finance. 

In  the  absence  of  any  legal  provision  and  to  some  extent  in 
the  absence  of  legal  authority  therefor  many  progressive  county 
school  boards  have  made  a  beginning  of  determining  educational 
policies  for  their  entire  counties,  e.g.,  with  respect  to  length  of 
the  school  term,  qualifications  of  teachers,  a  salary  scale  for 
teachers,  the  purchase  of  supplies  for  the  schools  in  various 
districts  of  the  counties. 

In  spite  of  such  development  it  must  be  recognized  that,  as 
at  present  organized  and  as  now  limited  in  its  legal  powers,  the 
county  school  board  is  an  ineffective  agency  of  county  school 
administration,  since  its  control  even  of  school  finance  is  limited 
to  State  and  county  funds  and  cannot  prevent  gross  inequalities 
of  school  support  in  various  parts  of  the  same  county. 

The  proper  place  and  functions  of  a  County  School  Board 
are  outlined  in  the  reorganization  recommended  in  a  later  part 
of  this  chapter. 

iv. — THE  DIVISION  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

By  constitutional  provisions  (Section  132)  the  State  Board  of 
Education  may,  in  its  discretion,  divide  the  State  into  appro- 
priate school  divisions  (comprising  one  or  more  counties  or 


Administration  in  County  and  District  255 

cities),  and  is  required  to  appoint  for  each  such  division  a 
superintendent  of  schools.  In  accordance  with  those  constitu- 
tional provisions  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
law  (Revised  Code  Section  604)  the  State  board  has  created 
eighty-six  non-city  division  and  twenty  city  divisions.  Of  the 
non-city  divisions,  seventy-three  are  constituted  of  single  coun- 
ties each,  twelve  are  composed  each  of  two  adjacent  counties, 
and  one  division  includes  three  counties.  For  each  of  those 
divisions  is  provided  a  superintendent  of  schools. 

(a).  The  Appointment  of  Superintendents:  All  division 
superintendents  (non-city  and  city)  are  appointed  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  according  to  constitutional  provisions, 
neither  the  school  authorities  of  counties,  districts,  and  cities, 
nor  the  people  thereof  having  any  legal  authority,  direct  or 
indirect,  in  their  selection  and  appointment. 

This  method  of  selecting  division  superintendents  is  thor- 
oughly contrary  to  accepted  standards  and  the  best  practice. 
For  the  most  part  objections  are  best  considered  in  connection 
with  the  reorganization  recommended  in  section  v.  of  this 
chapter.  Here,  however,  may  be  considered  one  very  impor- 
tant objection. 

Division  superintendents  are  appointed  "within  thirty  days 
before  April  first"  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  primaries  are 
held  for  the  election  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  the  Attorney-General,  and  the  governor.  Those 
members  of  the  State  Board  entitled  to  vote  on  the  election  of 
division  superintendents  are  three  institutional  representatives 
and  three  ex-officio  members — the  three  State  officers  mentioned. 
The  encouragement  thus  offered  to  the  ex-officio  members  of 
the  board  to  straighten  their  political  fences  in  any  county  or 
city  in  the  State  is  unsurpassed,  as  far  as  educational  agencies 
are  concerned,  in  any  State.  The  opportunities  have  not  been 
entirely  overlooked  in  Virginia.  The  fact  is  that  the  presence 
on  the  board  of  politically  elected  ex-officio  members  and  their 
participation  in  the  selection  of  division  superintendents  makes 
the  injection  of  political  influence  inevitable.  Present  legal 
provisions  are  thoroughly  vicious. 

(6).  Qualifications  of  Division  Superintendents:  The  State 
law  and  regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  set  mini- 


256  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

mum  qualifications  for  eligibility  to  the  office  of  division  superin- 
tendent. Reduced  to  their  lowest  terms  those  requirements 
mean  that  any  man  is  eligible  to  that  office  who:  (1)  has  had 
three  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher,  supervisor,  or  principal, 
and  who  holds  atleasta "First-Grade" certificate1; or  (2)  has  had 
at  least  two  years  of  normal  school  or  college  training,  including 
at  least  three  hours  of  professional  study  of  education  each 
week  throughout  each  session,  but  with  or  without  any  experi- 
ence whatever  in  teaching;  or  (3)  is  a  college  graduate,  but  with 
or  without  any  experience  in  teaching;  or  (4)  is  already  a  divi- 
sion superintendent.  The  low  character  of  those  requirements 
is  equalled  only  by  the  low  salaries  paid  in  most  non-city 
divisions. 

The  low  character  of  the  minimum  qualifications  does  not 
mean  that  in  all  cases  the  men  actually  appointed  are  not 
qualified  for  their  tasks.  In  most  divisions  of  the  State  are 
found  capable  superintendents  and  in  general  the  academic 
education  of  division  superintendents  is  far  above  the  minimum 
requirements  set,  as  is  shown  by  the  figures  presented  in  Table 
115.  Nevertheless  it  is  true:  (a)  that  present  requirements  set 
a  very  low  standard  in  general;  (b)  that  they  minimize  the 
importance  of  professional  training  and  actual  school  experience; 
and  (c)  that  they  permit  the  appointment  or  continuance  in 
office  of  men  thoroughly  unqualified  for  the  position  of  division 
superintendent.  The  fact  is  that  the  State,  as  a  whole,  has  only 
recently  begun  to  recognize  that  the  division  superintendent  need 
be  anything  else  than  a  good  business  man,  capable  of  adminis- 
tering the  material  and  business  phases  of  school  management. 

(c).  Duties  and  Powers  of  the  Division  Superintendent:  The 
division  superintendent  is  an  officer  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. His  duties  and  powers  are  prescribed  by  that  board  and 
he  is  responsible  to  it  for  general  supervision  of  those  phases  of 
school  administration  under  charge  of  the  State  Board.  He  is 
ex-officio  a  member  and  clerk  of  the  School  Trustee  Electoral 
Board  and  is  also  ex-officio  president  of  the  County  School 
Board,  but  otherwise  he  owes  no  direct  responsibility  to  county 

1  A  "First-Grade"  Certificate  is  really  about  fifth  or  sixth  grade, 
being  next  to  the  lowest  of  seven  grades  of  certificates.  Cf.  Chapter 
IX. 


Administration  in  County  and  District  257 

or  district  authorities  except  as  their  participation  in  the  pay- 
ment of  his  salary  may  affect  his  actions.  In  his  relations  to  the 
district  trustees  he  can  act  solely  as  an  advisor  where  the  law 
or  regulations  of  the  State  Board  are  not  concerned.  Except  in 
such  cases  there  is  no  way  in  which  unified  action  can  be  ensured 
in  school  administration  since  there  is  no  direct  responsibility 
on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  to  the  various  county  or 
district  boards  nor  is  there  any  direct  responsibility  on  the  part 
of  those  boards  to  the  superintendent.  This  division  of  uncorre- 
lated  authority  and  responsibility  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors 
interferring  with  education  in  the  counties  of  Virginia. 

(d).  Salaries  of  Division  Superintendents:  Section  626  of  the 
Revised  Code  provides  that  the  division  superintendent  shall 
receive  out  of  the  State  school  fund: 

".  .  .  .  forty  dollars  for  every  thousand  of  population  under  his 
jurisdiction  for  the  first  ten  thousand;  twenty-five  dollars  for  every 
thousand  in  excess  of  ten  up  to,  and  including,  thirty  thousand;  and 
fifteen  dollars  for  every  thousand  in  excess  of  thirty  thousand,  reject- 
ing in  each  case  fractions  of  less  than  five  hundred,  provided,  that  the 
pay  of  a  superintendent  from  funds  in  the  State  treasury  shall  not, 
in  any  case,  be  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  .dollars  a  year. 

The  board  of  supervisors  of  any  county,  or  the  council  of  any 
city,  may,  out  of  any  surplus  of  any  funds  in  the  treasury.  ...  or 
the  county  or  city  school  board  may,  out  of  local  school  funds,  sup- 
plement the  salary  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  ....  pro- 
vided that  the  salary  of  any  such  division  superintendent  shall  not  be 
increased  or  diminished  during  his  term  of  office." 

Table  116  presents  figures  showing  for  1918-19  the  salaries 
received  by  division  superintendents  in  counties.  Those  figures 
show  that  twelve  division  superintendents  receive  each  an 
annual  salary  of  less  than  81,000  and  that  more  than  one-half 
receive  each  an  annual  salary  of  less  than  81,500. 

Three  criticisms  are  called  for : 

(1).  The  salaries  paid  are  so  low  that  the  State  cannot  expect 
to  secure  and  retain  men  qualified  to  perform  the  duties  which 
are  or  should  be  expected.  The  smallest  city,  with  administra- 
tive duties  infinitely  simpler,  would  never  think  of  engaging  a 
superintendent  at  a  salary  as  low  as  the  salaries  paid  to  three 
fourths  of  the  division  superintendents  incounties.  The  salary  of 
any  division  superintendent  should  be  set  at  a  minimum  of  82,000. 


258  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(2).  The  method  of  determining  the  State's  share  in  the 
salary  of  superintendents  is  certainly  ill  suited  to  county  condi- 
tions, where  tbe  size  of  the  division,  the  distribution  of  the  popu- 
lation and  the  distribution  of  schools  are  factors  frequently  far 
more  important  than  the  size  of  population  in  determining  the 
work  of  the  superintendent  and  the  qualifications  needed.  A 
better  method  would  be  to  set  the  State's  share  in  the  superin- 
tendent's salary  at  a  definite  proportion  of  the  amount  paid, 
regardless  of  population,  but  to  set  a  minimum  for  the  total 
salary  and  a  maximum  for  the  State's  contribution. 

(3).  The  legal  provision  preventing  any  increase  in  the 
superintendent's  salary  during  his  term  of  office  makes  it  impos- 
sible for  any  of  the  authorities  concerned  to  retain  the  services 
of  a  capable  man  who  may  be  invited  to  accept  another  position, 
however  much  his  services  may  be  valued.  This  restriction 
serves  no  useful  purpose  and  sometimes  operates  as  a  hindrance 
to  effective  school  administration.    It  should  be  eliminated. 

V. — REORGANIZATION  RECOMMENDED 

In  the  preceding  section  of  this  chapter  an  attempt  has  been 
made  very  briefly  to  outline  the  character  of  the  present  agen- 
cies for  educational  administration  in  the  counties  and  county 
districts  of  Virginia.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the 
present  plan  is  very  defective  and  demands  radical  modification. 
In  this  section  (a)  the  principal  objections  to  the  present  plan 
are  summarized,  and  (b)  plans  for  reorganization  are  recom- 
mended. 

(a).  Summary  of  Objections  to  the  present  plan:  The  principal 
defects  in  the  present  organization  and  the  principal  reasons  for 
the  reorganization  recommended  are  summarized  below: 

(1).  The  present  plan  involves  a  very  complex  combination 
of  different  boards  and  different  officials  which  practically  pre- 
cludes any  unified  efforts  to  administer  the  schools  effectively. 

(2).  Closely  related  to  this  is  the  fact  that  duties  and  powers, 
responsibilities  and  authorities,  are  so  divided  and  distributed 
that  the  present  plan  renders  it  practically  impossible  to  locate 
them.  As  a  whole  the  School  Trustee  Electoral  Board  owes 
direct  responsibility  to  no  one  in  particular,  to  no  branch  of  the 


Administration  in  County  and  District  259 

government,  nor  to  the  people.  The  school  trustees  owe  direct 
responsibility  to  the  electoral  board.  The  superintendent  owes 
direct  responsibility  to  the  State  Board  of  Education.  The 
county  supervisor  levies  the  school  tax  and  is  directly  responsi- 
ble to  the  people.  In  the  maze  of  interrelations  involved  it  is 
totally  impossible  to  locate  responsibility. 

(3).  By  the  present  plan  the  people  of  any  district  or  county 
are  almost  entirely  excluded  from  direct  or  indirect  participa- 
tion in  the  control  of  their  schools.  Their  only  contact  with 
the  administration  of  the  schools  is  found  in  the  election  of  the 
State  Superintendent,  the  Governor,  and  the  Attorney-General 
as  ex-officio  members  of  the  State  Board,  in  the  election  of  the 
County  Commonwealth's  Attorney,  and  in  the  election  of  the 
county  tax  officers. 

(4).  The  result  of  this  non-participation  has  been  in  many 
counties  and  in  many  districts  a  general  apathy,  ignorance, 
and  neglect,  as  far  as  the  schools  are  concerned.  This  would  be 
the  case  in  much  greater  degree  if  it  were  not  for  the  very  com- 
mendable activities  of  the  non-official  Co-operative  Educational 
Association. 

(5).  The  appointment  of  the  division  superintendent  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  and  his  primary  responsibility  to  it 
renders  impossible  the  ensurance  of  effective  co-operation 
between  him  and  the  local  school  authorities. 

(6).  The  fact  that  the  district  trustees  and  the  superintend- 
ents who  share  the  management  of  the  schools  are  not  directly 
responsible  to  the  people  places  them  at  a  disadvantage  with 
respect  to  local  school  support,  as  compared  with  the  county 
supervisors  who  levy  the  tax  and  are  directly  responsible  to 
the  people. 

(6).  Reorganization  Recommended:  For  the  purpose  of  sim- 
plifying county  school  administration,  of  making  it  more 
democratic,  and  of  rendering  it  more  efficient,  the  following 
reorganization  is  recommended  as  in  accord  with  the  best  stand- 
ards and  attested  experience  in  other  states. 

(1).  The  present  School  Trustee  Electoral  Boards,  District 
Boards  of  School  Trustees,  and  County  School  Boards  should 
be  abolished.  In  their  stead  should  be  created  for  each  county  a 
County  School  Board  consisting  of  five  members  elected  by  the 


260  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

voters  of  the  entire  county  and  from  the  county  at  large,  but 
not  more  than  two  from  any  one  magisterial  district.  One 
member  should  be  elected  each  year  to  serve  for  a  term  of  five 
years.  He  should  be  elected  at  a  special  school  election  which 
should  not  coincide  with  the  election  of  political  officers. 

(2).  This  reorganized  County  School  Board  should  be 
invested  with  all  powers  and  duties  necessary  for  the  proper 
administration  of  education  in  its  jurisdiction,  subject  only  to 
the  State  law  and  to  regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. It  should  be  given  full  authority  to  manage  the  schools 
in  its  best  judgment  and  be  held  solely  responsible  to  the  State 
and  to  the  people  of  the  county  for  their  proper  management. 

(3).  To  this  end  the  County  School  Board  should  have  the 
authority  to  select  and  appoint  its  chief  administrative  and 
executive  officer — the  division  superintendent  of  schools.1  Its 
appointment  of  superintendent,  however,  should  be  safe- 
guarded by  restriction  to  selection  from  a  list  of  eligible  candidates 
prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  or,  subject  to  its 
approval.  Subject  to  such  restriction  and  to  requirements  for 
minimum  salary  it  should  be  authorized  to  select  a  superinten- 
dent regardless  of  place  of  residence  and  at  such  salary  as  it  may 
determine. 

(4).  The  County  School  Board  should  confine  its  functions 
to  those  of  a  legislative  and  judicial  character,  delegating  to 
the  superintendent  functions  of  a  managerial  or  executive  nature 
involving  professional  and  expert  knowledge,  experience,  or 
judgment.  In  particular  it  should  delegate  to  him  the  initiative 
in  and  management  of  such  matters  as  the  courses  of  study, 
the  selection  of  text-books,  the  nomination  of  teachers  and  their 
assignment  to  schools  or  grades.  The  superintendent  should  be 
present  at  all  meetings  of  the  County  School  Board,  with  power 
to  participate  in  the  deliberation  of  all  matters  not  involving 
directly  his  own  tenure  and  salary,  but  without  power  tc  vote 
thereon.  No  teacher  or  other  employee  of  the  board  should  be 
appointed,  promoted,  transferred,  or  removed  without  his 
nomination,  unless  under  the  most  exceptional  circumstances. 
All  such  employees  should  be  under  his  immediate  authority. 

1  Nothing  in  this  recommendation  need  operate  to  prevent  a  divi- 
sion superintendent  of  schools  to  act  for  two  or  more  counties. 


Administration  in  County  and  District  261 

(5).  The  County  School  Board  should  have  final  authority, 
within  legal  limitations,  to  determine  the  amount  of  money 
necessary  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  the  schools  of  the 
county,  to  fix  the  amount  of  money  which  must  be  raised  by 
a  uniform  school  tax  on  all  property  in  the  county  taxable  for 
school  purposes,  and  to  require  the  County  Supervisors  to  levy 
a  tax  which  will  produce  the  amount  of  county  funds  necessary  for 
current  maintenance  and  support  of  schools  in  the  entire  county. 
It  should  distribute  available  State  and  county  funds  so  as  best 
to  equalize  educational  opportunities  for  all  children  in  all  parts 
of  the  county. 

The  present  organization  of  county  and  district  school  admin- 
istration is  unsatisfactory  as  judged  by  any  accepted  standards. 
The  reorganization  suggested  is  in  accord  with  the  best  educa- 
tional theory  and  practice.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  would 
result  as  successfully  in  Virginia  as  it  has  in  States  in  which 
county  school  administration  has  been  thus  reorganized. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  Constitution  and  the  State  Laws  be  so 
amended  as  to  make  possible  the  reorganization  of  county  and 
district  school  administration  recommended  in  this  chapter  as 
above  and  below  outlined. 

2.  That  all  school  district  lines  be  eliminated  in  school 
administration. 

3.  That  the  present  School  Trustee  Electoral  Boards,  Dis- 
trict Boards  of  School  Trustees,  and  County  School  Boards  be 
abolished. 

4.  That  in  each  county  of  the  State  there  be  established  a 
County  School  Board  consisting  of  five  members  elected  by  the 
voters  at  large  and  from  the  county  at  large,  but  not  more  than 
two  from  any  one  magisterial  district,  one  member  to  be  elected 
each  year  to  serve  for  five  years — vacancies  for  any  unexpired 
term  to  be  filled  through  appointment  by  the  circuit  court 
judge. 

5.  That  the  County  School  Board  be  given  legal  authority, 
within  such  limitations  as  may  be  wise,  to  determine  the  amount 


262  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

of  money  necessary  for  the  proper  maintenance  and  support  of 
schools  in  the  county,  to  fix  the  amount  of  money  to  be  raised 
by  county  taxation  for  school  purposes,  and  to  require  the 
County  Supervisors  to  levy  a  tax  which  will  produce  the  amount 
of  money  necessary. 

6.  That  the  County  School  Board  be  authorized  to  select 
and  appoint  a  division  superintendent  of  schools  from  a  list 
of  eligibles  determined  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  or 
subject  to  its  recorded  approval  before  appointment. 

7.  That  the  County  School  Board  be  empowered  to  appoint 
a  superintendent  without  restriction  except  as  indicated  in 
recommendation  6  above  and  by  minimum  salary  requirements. 

8.  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  establish  such  mini- 
mum requirements  for  eligibility  to  the  position  of  division 
superintendent  as  will  exclude  all  candidates:  (a)  not  having 
had  at  least  three  years  of  experience  in  teaching,  school  super- 
vision, or  school  administration;  and  (b)  not  having  had  at 
least  two  years  of  education  in  normal  school,  or  college;  and 
(c)  not  manifesting  qualifications  at  least  equivalent  to  those 
required  for  the  holder  of  the  present  Normal  Professional 
Certificate. 

9.  That  the  minimum  salary  of  a  division  superintendent 
be  set  at  $2,000  per  annum. 

10.  That  the  County  School  Board  provide  adequate  office 
room  and  adequate  clerical  assistance  for  the  use  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  preferably  at  the  county  court  house  or  in 
a  proper  place  conveniently  located  for  purposes  of  school 
administration. 

11.  That  all  teachers  and  other  regular  employees  of  the 
County  School  Board  be  appointed  only  on  the  written  nomina- 
tion and  recommendation  of  the  division  superintendent  and 
that  such  teachers  and  employees  be  subject  to  his  immediate 
authority. 


CHAPTER  XX 
CITY  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

THE   administration   of  education  in  the  cities  of  Virginia 

involves  three  principal  local  agencies — the  City  Council, 

the  City  School  Board,  and  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

i. THE  CITY  COUNCIL 

The  City  Council  participates  in  the  administration  of  the 
city  schools  in  two  fundamentally  important  ways:  (1)  it 
appoints  the  members  of  the  City  School  Board;  (2)  it  passes  on 
the  budget  estimates  of  that  board,  determines  the  amount  of 
money  to  be  appropiated,  and  levies  the  tax  or  makes  appro- 
priations therefor.  Thus  final  control  of  all  school  matters,  not 
determined  by  the  State  constitution,  by  State  Law,  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  or  by  the  city  charter,  rests  in  the 
hands  of  the  City  Council. 

Selection  of  members  of  the  City  School  Board  by  the  City 
Council  is  an  antiquated  method  long  since  abandoned  in  most 
parts  of  the  country.  In  almost  every  progressive  city  in  the 
country  the  members  of  the  school  board  are  now  either  elected 
by  the  people  or  appointed  by  the  mayor,  with  practice  much 
in  favor  of  the  former  method.  The  principal  reasons  for  that 
change  are  given  below. 

1.  Nothing  is  gained  and  much  is  lost  by  making  responsi- 
bility for  the  administration  of  the  schools  pass  to  the  people 
from  one  board  through  a  second  board  chosen  for  a  multitude 
of  other  duties. 

2.  The  election  and  activities  of  the  City  Council  involve  a 
host  of  political  influences  which  are  in  part  projected  into  the 
administration  of  education  wherever  the  council  appoints  the 
members  of  the  school  board.  Not  infrequently  appointments 
to  that  board  are  more  or  less  affected  by  political  obligations 
incurred  by  members  of  the  City  Council. 


264  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

3.  The  City  Council  is  concerned  almost  exclusively  with 
city  affairs,  while  the  city  schools  are  in  no  small  measure  a 
State  concern  as  well  as  city  concern. 

4.  Below  it  is  recommended  that  the  school  board  have  the 
power  to  fix  the  amount  of  money  "needed  for  the  proper  main- 
tenance and  growth  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city"  and  to 
levy  the  necessary  tax.  This  cannot  be  done  unless  the  board 
receives  its  power  direct  from  the  people  and  is  directly  respon- 
sible to  them. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  the  abandonment  of  the  present 
practice  of  selecting  members  of  the  school  board  through 
appointment  by  the  city  council,  and  recommends  election  of 
the  school  board  by  the  people. 

The  relation  of  the  city  council  to  school  finance  creates 
problems  of  far-reaching  importance. 

By  law  the  city  school  board  is  required  once  each  year,  and 
oftener  if  deemed  necessary,  to  submit  to  the  City  Council  a 
classified  estimate  of  funds  needed.  Whether  or  not  such 
funds  will  be  provided  is  dependent  entirely  on  the  'judgment 
of  the  City  Council.  Ordinarily  its  judgment  is  not  determined 
by  "what  funds  will  be  needed  for  the  proper  maintenance  and 
growth  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city"1  but  according  to  the 
strength  or  weakness  of  competing  projects,  the  generosity  or 
parsimony  of  the  council,  or  by  political  factors  not  germane 
to  school  administration.  To  obviate  this  objectionable  diffi- 
culty it  is  recommended  below  that  the  City  School  Board  be 
invested  with  the  authority  and  power  to  fix  the  school  tax  or 
determine  the  amount  of  appropriations  necessary  for  the  proper 
maintenance  of  the  city  schools,  subject  only  to  such  legal 
limitations  as  may  be  wise. 

ii. — THE  CITY  SCHOOL  BOARD 

Section  780  of  the  Revised  Code  provides  that:  "The  council 
of  each  city  shall  appoint  three  trustees  for  each  school  district 
in  such  city,  whose  term  of  office  shall  be  three  years,  respec- 
tively, and  one  of  whom  shall  be  appointed  annually."  The 
"school  district"  is  usually  co-terminous  with  the  city  ward  or 

1    Revised  Code,  section  782. 


City  Administration  265 

comprehends  two  or  more  city  wards.  Thus  two  cities  of  the 
State  have  each  one  school  district  and  a  school  board  of  three 
members,  six  cities  have  each  two  districts  and  a  school  board 
of  six  members,  eight  cities  have  each  three  districts  and  a  school 
board  of  nine  members,  and  three  cities  have  each  four  districts 
and  a  school  board  of  twelve  members. 

The  selection  of  school-board  members  by  districts  or  wards 
was  formerly  a  common  procedure  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  it  was  very  undesirable 
and  the  practice  has  long  been  abandoned  in  the  great  majority 
of  cities  throughout  the  country  in  favor  of  the  selection  of 
board  members  for  the  city  at  large. 

The  principal  reasons  for  that  change  are  those  outlined 
below. 

1.  The  city  maintains  its  school  system  for  the  benefit  of 
the  whole  city.  Its  board  for  school  administration  should  not 
be  organized  on  the  assumption  that  members  are  to  be  chosen 
to  represent  the  interests  of  wards  or  districts  separated  mainly 
for  political  functions. 

2.  Where  board  members  are  selected  to  represent  wards  or 
districts  encouragement  is  given  to  the  injection  of  special 
interests  and  petty  ward  politics  into  school  administration. 
This  is  particularly  true  where  school  board  members  are 
appointed  by  the  City  Council. 

3.  Not  infrequently  district  or  ward  representation  on  the 
school  board  leads  to  either  or  both  of  two  evils:  (a)  the  pre- 
vention or  delay  of  much  needed  improvements  in  one  part  of 
the  city  through  sectional  rivalry  or  selfishness;  (b)  political 
log-rolling  or  reciprocal  favors  which  waste  school  funds. 
Instances  of  both  are  not  unfamiliar  to  citizens  of  Virginia. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  for  the  cities  of  Virginia  the 
election  of  school  board  members  from  the  city  at  large  and  by 
the  electors  at  large. 

A  second  matter  calling  for  attention  in  the  constitution  of 
city  school  boards  in  Virginia  is  the  number  of  members.  At 
present  the  number  of  members  varies  from  three  to  twelve, 
the  majority  of  cities  (fourteen  out  of  nineteen)  having  boards 
of  six  or  nine  members  each.    For  most  cities  a  board  of  three 


266  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

members  is  probably  too  small,  two  members  being  able  to 
block  or  force  any  measure.  On  the  other  hand  a  board  of 
twelve  members  is  larger  than  necessary  and  almost  always 
tends  to  result  in  the  distribution  of  duties  among  several 
standing  committees  and  in  an  undesirable  dissipation  of  respon- 
sibility. Finally,  any  board  having  an  even  number  of  members 
is  open  to  objections  on  the  ground  that  important  action  may 
be  delayed  or  prevented  by  a  tie  vote. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  that  in  cities  of  less  than  25,000 
population  the  school  board  be  composed  of  five  members,  one 
member  to  be  elected  each  year  to  serve  for  five  years,  and  that 
in  cities  of  more  than  25,000  population  the  school  board  be 
composed  of  five,  seven,  or  nine  members. 

A  final  matter  to  be  noted  here  is  the  fact  that  city  school 
boards  in  Virginia  tend  to  operate  largely  through  several 
standing  committees.  This  is  a  common  but  thoroughly  perni- 
cious practice  in  most  cities  of  the  country,  the  principal  objec- 
tions being  those  outlined  below. 

1.  Where  standing  committees  are  found  there  is  an  appar- 
ently inevitable  tendency  to  delegate  to  minority  committees 
important  duties  and  powers  which  should  receive  the  careful 
attention  of  the  entire  board. 

2.  This  ordinarily  results  in  a  tendency  toward  more  or  less 
perfunctory  acquiescence  by  the  board  to  recommendations 
and  acts  carefully  considered  by  a  minority  of  members  only. 

3.  Board  meetings  should  be  open  to  the  public.  Committee 
meetings  are  usually  of  a  somewhat  informal  character  and  may 
be  held  behind  closed  doors.  Thus  personal  and  political 
influence  can  affect  the  action  of  committees  much  more  easily 
than  those  of  the  whole  board  in  public  meeting. 

4.  The  appointment  of  standing  committees  is  commonly 
left  to  the  chairman  of  the  board  who  may  assign  members  in 
such  a  way  as  to  serve  his  own  ends. 

5.  A  common  result  of  the  maintenance  of  standing  com- 
mittees is  the  exposure  of  individual  members  to  influences  and 
criticisms  which  should  be  applied  to  the  board  as  a  whole. 

6.  Standing  committees  or  their  individual  members  fre- 
quently assume  powers  which  should  belong  only  to  the  board 


City  Administration  267 

as  a  whole  or  to  the  superintendent.  Particularly  dangerous 
here  is  the  tendency  for  committees  or  committee  members  to 
interfere  with  the  details  of  administration  or  with  the  executive 
and  professional  duties  of  the  superintendent. 

For  these  reasons  the  city  school  boards  of  Virginia  should 
reform  their  practice  of  organizing  the  board  work  through 
standing  committees. 

Hi. THE  CITY  SCHOOL  SUPERINTENDENT 

The  city  school  superintendent  in  Virginia  is  selected  in  the 
same  way  and  for  the  same  term  (four  years)  as  other  (county) 
division  superintendents,  i.e.,  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 
His  salary  also  is  determined  primarily  by  the  same  law  and 
is  based  on  population  factors,  but  he  may  receive  additional 
remuneration  from  the  city  council,  provided  his  salary  is  not 
changed  during  the  term  for  which  he  has  been  elected. 

In  the  appointment  of  city  superintendents  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  Virginia  employs  a  unique  method  and  in 
general  the  provisions  above  outlined  are  contrary  to  approved 
principles  and  common  practice,  the  principal  objections  being 
those  outlined  below. 

1.  Appointed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  and  subject 
to  the  local  board  in  the  majority  of  his  duties,  the  city  superin- 
tendent finds  himself  in  a  position  of  divided  responsibility, 
owing  his  election  and  tenure  to  the  State  Board,  a  part  of  his 
salary  to  the  City  Council,  and  support  in  the  school  adminis- 
tration to  the  city  school  board.  Under  such  conditions  the 
most  efficient  school  administration  is  impossible. 

2.  Elected  by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  not  necessarily 
with  the  endorsement  of  the  city  board  and  occasionally  in  the 
face  of  considerable  local  opposition,  the  superintendent  is 
handicapped  in  his  work  from  the  start. 

3.  The  lack  of  a  definite  division  of  authority  and  responsi- 
bility between  the  locally  chosen  board  and  the  externally 
appointed  superintendent  easily  leads  to  misunderstanding  and 
prevents  the  definite  location  of  responsibility. 

4.  Local  boards  may  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  a  definite 
educational  program,  the  accomplishment  of  which  may  be 


268  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

delayed  or  blocked  by  a  superintendent  over  whose  selection 
and  tenure  they  have  no  direct  control  and  over  whose  salary 
they  have  but  partial  control. 

5.  Under  present  conditions  it  is  legally  impossible  for  a  city 
board  to  increase  the  salary  of  a  school  superintendent  during 
his  term  of  office.  Hence,  on  several  occasions,  the  city  and  the 
state  have  been  at  a  very  definite  disadvantage  when  good 
superintendents  are  attracted  elsewhere  and  neither  state  nor 
city  authorities  have  the  legal  power  to  meet  the  standards  set 
elsewhere. 

The  Survey  Staff  recommends  the  abandonment  of  the 
present  practice  and  the  appointment  of  the  city  superintendent 
by  the  city  school  board  for  such  salary  as  that  board  may 
determine. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  constitution  and  the  State  law  be  so 
amended  as  to  provide  for  the  selection  of  boards  of  education 
in  cities  by  popular  election. 

2.  That  in  each  city  of  less  than  25,000  population  the  city 
school  board  be  composed  of  five  members  elected  from  the 
city  at  large,  one  member  to  be  elected  each  year  to  serve  for 
five  years. 

3.  That  in  each  city  of  more  than  25,000  population  the  city 
school  board  be  composed  of  five,  seven,  or  nine  members  to  be 
elected  from  the  city  at  large,  one,  two,  or  three  members  to  be 
elected  each  year  to  serve  for  three,  five,  or  seven  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  decision  of  the  city  council. 

4.  That  the  powers  and  duties  of  such  city  school  boards 
include  all  such  powers  and  duties  at  present  legally  assigned 
to  them  and  in  addition  all  duties  and  powers  over  school  affairs 
now  assigned  to  the  city  councils,  including  the  authority, 
within  legal  limits,  to  fix  the  school  tax  or  to  require  the  appro- 
priation necessary  for  "the  maintenance  and  growth  of  the 
public  schools." 

5.  That  the  State  constitution  and  the  State  law  be  so 
amended  as  to  provide  for  the  appointment  of  the  city  superin- 


City  Administration  269 

tendent  by  the  city  school  board,  subject  to  the  approval  of, 
or  from  a  list  of  eligibles  prepared  by,  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. 

6.  That  city  school  boards  abandon  the  practice  of  working 
through  numerous  standing  committees. 

7.  That  the  city  school  board  confine  its  activities  to  legis- 
lative and  judicial  functions,  leaving  the  professional  and 
managerial  functions  of  school  administration  to  its  executive 
officer,  the  school  superintendent. 

8.  That  the  superintendent  have  the  power  to  be  present  at 
all  meetings  of  the  City  School  Board  and  to  participate  in  all 
activities  of  the  Board  except  those  involving  his  own  tenure 
or  salary,  but  without  power  to  vote. 

9.  That  legal  provision  be  made  for  the  appointment  of 
teachers,  supervisors,  principals,  janitors  and  all  other  school 
employees,  by  the  city  board  only  on  the  nomination  and 
recommendation  of  the  superintendent,  and  that  all  such 
employees  be  subject  to  his  immediate  authority. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

FINANCIAL  SUPPORT 

r\OES  Virginia  invest  emough  money  in  her  public  schools  to 
provide  a  satisfactory  education  for  her  citizens?  How 
much  money  is  needed  annually?  Does  Virginia  employ  proper 
methods  in  raising  school  funds?  Does  she  employ  proper 
methods  in  distributing  and  expending  them?  What  changes 
are  desirable  to  secure  better  results?  These  are  fundamentally 
important  questions  which  must  be  considered  in  this  concluding 
chapter. 

i. — DOES  VIRGINIA  PROVIDE  SUFFICIENT 
FUNDS  FOR  SCHOOL  SUPPORT 

According  to  the  balance  sheet  for  the  school  year  ending 
June  30,  1918  the  gross  receipts  from  all  sources  for  school 
purposes  were  $10,198,168  and  the  gross  disbursements  were 
$9,155,363.  Subtracting  from  the  gross  disbursements  (1) 
increments  of  the  permanent  Literary  Fund  ($161,632)*,  (2) 
delinquent  taxes  ($87,454) ,  and  (3)  commissions  paid  to  county 
and  city  treasurers  for  collecting  and  disbursing  school  taxes 
($159,103),  the  net  expenditures  for  actual  school  use  are 
reduced  to  $8,747,074.  Detailed  figures  are  presented  in  Tables 
117  and  118. 

Are  such  funds  sufficient  to  provide  satisfactory  education 
in  Virginia? 

No  problem  of  education  is  more  difficult  than  that  involving 
the  question  of  the  amount  of  money  needed  to  provide  ade- 
quate school  support?  Determining  factors  vary  widely  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  and  in  various  parts  of  any  one 
State.  In  Table  119  are  presented  the  latest  available  figures 
purporting  to  show  the  cost  of  education  in  -various  parts  of 
the  country  in  1916.  Undoubtedly  those  figures  are  open  to  a 
wide  margin  of  error.     In  so  far,  however,  as  they  show  the 


1    Accredited  to  gross  disbursements  but  not  available  for  expendi- 
tures. 


Financial  Support  271 

facts  of  the  case,  they  indicate  that  at  that  time  Virginia  occu- 
pied among  the  States  of  the  Union  thirty-ninth  place  with 
respect  to  the  amount  expended  per  capita  of  the  total  popu- 
lation, thirty-ninth  place  with  respect  to  the  expenditure  per 
capita  of  the  school  population,  and  forty-first  place  with  respect 
to  the  expenditure  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  At 
that  time  the  expenditure  per  capita  of  the  total  population  was 
for  Virginia  S3. 33,  for  the  country  $6.28 ;  the  expenditure  per  capita 
of  the  school  population  was  for  Virginia  $10.97,  for  the  country 
$23.87;  and  the  expenditure  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attend- 
ance was  for  Virginia  $21.53,  forthecountry  $41.72.  Obviously, 
in  so  far  as  those  figures  represent  the  facts,  Virginia  in  1916  was 
far  behind  the  maj  ority  of  States  in  expenditure  for  school  support. 
Since  that  time  increased  support  has  been  provided  in  Virginia, 
but  also  in  other  States.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
the  relative  position  of  Virginia  has  changed  materially  within 
the  past  three  years,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  State's  expendi- 
ture per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  has  increased  to 
$27.49. 

For  evidence  of  the  inadequacy  of  school  support  in  Virginia 
one  does  not  need  to  search  for  external  proof.  An  examination 
of  conditions  in  varuious  parts  of  the  State  itself  shows  that 
the  schools  are  inadequately  supported.  Through  lack  of 
sufficient  funds  the  average  length  of  the  school  term  is  kept 
far  below  standard  (the  average  being  7.3  months),1  the  pay 
of  teachers  is  so  low  that  teachers  reasonably  educated  and 
properly  trained  cannot  be  secured,2  proper  supervision  in 
counties  cannot  be  provided,3  buildings  and  equipment  cannot 
be  properly  provided  and  cared  for,<  and  many  important 
phases  of  education  are  neglected. s 

A  fair  index  of  the  present  situation  is  found  in  the  figures 
presented  in  Table  120.  Those  figures  show  that  in  some  coun- 
ties the  expenditures  for  instruction  per  white  pupil  enrolled 
run  as  low  as  six  dollars  or  less,  that  in  nearly  one-fourth  of  the 
counties  it  is  less  than  ten  dollars,  and  that  for  all  counties  the 

1  See  Chapter  II. 

1  See  Chapters  VII-IX. 

»  See   Chapter   XIV 

*  See  Chapter  XVII 

'  See  Chapters  V,  X,  XI,  XII. 


272  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

median  of  such  expenditure  is  only  $12.76.  For  colored  pupils 
such  expenditures  run  as  low  as  SI. 95  in  Accomac  County,  are 
less  than  four  dollars  in  two-fifths  of  the  counties,  and  give  a 
median  of  $4.19  for  all  counties.  Without  question  at  such  a 
rate  effective  education  is  impossible. 

ii.  HOW  MUCH  MONEY  IS  NEEDED 

Unfortunately  there  is  no  recognized  formula  by  which  the 
amount  of  money  necessary  for  adequate  school  support  can 
be  determined.  Current  practice  throughout  the  country, 
however,  affords  some  empirical  basis  for  estimating  reasonable 
minima  standards. 

The  principal  item  in  school  expenditures  is  that  of  teachers' 
salaries,  in  1917-18  involving  between  three-fifths  and  two- 
thirds  of  all  school  expenditures  in  Virginia,  and  for  various 
States  ranging  in  1915-16  from  47  to  80  per  cent  of  all  school 
expenditures,  with  a  median  at  about  58  per  cent  and  a  national 
average  of  57  per  cent.  In  1915-16  the  average  monthly  salary 
of  teachers  throughout  the  country  was  $70.21.  At  present  it 
is  probably  not  less  than  $75.  per  month.  At  the  latter  figure 
with  a  nine  months  standard  term  the  average  annual  salary 
of  teachers  would  be  $675. 

If  Virginia  were  to  provide  a  uniform  school  term  of  nine 
months  and  were  to  meet  the  national  average  for  monthly 
salaries  with  the  staff  of  approximately  14,000  teachers  em- 
ployed in  1917-18  the  funds  to  be  provided  would  amount  to 
$9,450,000 — more  than  the  net  expenditures  for  all  school 
purposes  in  1917-18.  If  the  State  were  to  meet  the  same  stand- 
ards with  the  number  of  teachers  which  should  have  been 
employed  (approximately  15,000)  the  amount  needed  would 
be  about  $10,125,000.  In  Table  121  are  presented  figures 
showing  the  amount  needed  for  instructional  purposes  only, 
according  to  the  average  monthly  salary  of  teachers  and  accord- 
ing to  the  length  of  the  school  term.  In  the  judgment  of  the 
Survey  Staff  the  minimum  amount  of  money  needed  for  instruc- 
tional purposes  only  in  Virginia  is  that  amount  which  would 
provide  an  average  annual  salary  of  $675,  a  school  term  of 
nine  months,  and  one  teacher  for  every  30  or  35  pupils  enrolled. 
In  round  numbers  that  would  mean  at  present  a  minimum  of 
approximately  $10,000,000. 

Much  the  same  results  are  obtained  if  we  consider  the  cost 


Financial  Support  273 

of  instruction  per  pupil  enrolled  or  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance.  In  1915-16  the  average  annual  expenditure  for 
teachers'  salaries  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  was 
$23.75  for  the  country — in  the  States  with  best  provision  for 
education  ranging  as  high  as  $40.00  or  above.  By  now  the 
national  average  is  certainly  above  $25. — probably  nearer  $30. 
If  Virginia  had  reached  that  average  in  1917-18  she  would  have 
required  approximately  $8,000,000  for  teachers'  salaries  alone, 
the  difference  between  this  figure  and  the  figure  given  above 
being  due  in  large  part  to  poor  attendance  in  Virginia.  At 
the  rate  of  $30.  per  pupil  the  amount  needed  would  have  been 
$9,520,680.!  If  at  either  rate  attendance  were  anywhere  near 
its  proper  status  the  amount  would  be  somewhere  between 
$9,000,000  and  $11,000,000.  In  Table  122  are  presented  figures 
showing  the  amounts  needed  for  instructional  costs  in  Virginia, 
according  to  the  rate  of  expenditure  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance. 

On  the  basis  of  these  considerations  the  Survey  Staff  estimates 
the  amount  of  money  needed  annually  as  a  minimum  for  instruc- 
tional purposes  in  Virginia  at  present  at  between  $9,000,000 
and  $10,000,000. 

It  should  be  clear  that  the  funds  needed  for  teachers'  salaries  — 
the  largest  and  most  important  item  in  school  support — ought 
always  to  be  determined  with  reference  to  the  variable  factor 
of  the  number  of  children  to  be  taught  and  to  the  minimum 
quality  of  instruction  to  be  provided.  The  minimum  quality 
of  instruction  which  ought  to  be  provided  cannot  be  secured  at 
a  cost  of  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance,  if  nine  school  months  of  education  are  to  be  pro- 
vided. It  is  recommended,  therefore,  that  the  amount  to  be 
raised  and  expended  for  instructional  purposes  in  Virginia  be 
not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  for  every  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance,  or,  if  a  uniform  school  term  of  not  less  than 
nine  months  (180  actual  school  days)  is  not  required  through- 
out the  State,  that  the  amount  be  set  at  not  less  than  fifteen 
cents3  per  unit  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance. 

1  The  citizen  of  Virginia  who  considers  such  a  figure  excessively 
high  may  be  enlightened  by  enquiring  the  cost  of  tuition  in  the  nearest 
private  school. 

2  The  national  average  was  14.82  cents  in  1915-16.  It  is  probably 
nearer  eighteen  cents  now. 


274  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

School  expenditures  other  than  those  for  teachers'  salaries 
are  in  general  so  dependent  on  factors  which  vary  in  irregular 
fashion  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  lay  down  any  uniform 
principle  for  their  determination.  Some  may  be  fairly  constant; 
others  (e.g.,  expenditures  for  outlay,  are  exceedingly  variable 
and  practically  defy  prophesy.  These  facts,  however,  are  clear 
from  the  investigation  made:  (1)  that  expenditures  for  general 
control  in  Virginia  must  be  increased  to  provide  adequately 
for  well  qualified  county  superintendents,  supervisors,  medical 
inspectors,  and  school  nurses;1  (2)  that  funds  for  the  operation 
and  maintenance  of  the  school  plants  must  be  greatly  increased3 
(3)  that  greatly  increased  funds  must  be  made  available  for 
permanent  outlay  in  most  parts  of  the  State.* 

All  in  all  it  is  probable  that  the  present  approximate  ratio 
of  three  to  two  teachers'  salaries  and  other  school  expenditures 
will  have  to  be  maintained  if  the  schools  of  Virginia  are  to  per- 
form their  task  at  all  properly. 

Summarizing  this  consideration  of  needed  funds  we  may 
make  the  following  rough  estimates  of  the  minima  funds  re- 
quired on  the  basis  of  present  enrollments: 

Expenditure  for  instruction  about $10,000,000 

Other  expenditures  about 6,666,000 

Total  funds  needed $16,666,000 

Nothing  less  than  that  amount  can  provide  the  funds  at 
present  needed  to  raise  education  in  Virginia  to  the  national 
average.  As  the  school  enrolment  increases  and  as  new  needs 
come  those  minima  must  be  increased  correspondingly.  The 
amount  of  funds  needed  in  any  school  year  must  be  determined, 
not  on  an  absolute  basis,  but  on  a  relative  basis  determined  by 
the  number  of  children  to  be  educated  and  the  quality  of  instruc- 
tion to  be  provided.  A  method  for  determining  the  annual 
amount  needed  is  outlined  in  the  latter  part  of  this  chapter. 

hi. — ARE  SCHOOL  FUNDS  PROPERLY  RAISED  IN  VIRGINIA 

School  support  is  provided  in  Virginia  (a)  through  State 
funds,  and  (b)  through  local  (county,  district,  and  city)  funds. 
In  1917-18  State  funds  amounted  in  the  gross  to  $3,010,485 

»    See  Chapters  XIV,  XII,  XIX. 
•    See  Chapter  XVII. 


Financial  Support  275 

Or  29.5  per  cent  of  the  total,  and  local  funds  amounted  in  the 
gross  to  $7,187,168,  or  70.5  per  cent  of  the  total.  Of  the 
revenues  available  for  actual  school  expenditures  State  funds 
amounted  to  $2,584,792  (27.1  per  cent)  and  local  funds 
amounted  to  $6,941,125  (72.9  per  cent).  Thus  it  is  seen  that 
the  State's  share  in  school  support  in  Virginia  is  somewhat  less 
than  three  tenths  of  the  total.  Figures  showing  the  sources 
from  which  the  various  revenues  are  derived  are  presented  in 
Table  117. 

(a),    state  school  funds 

State  school  funds  embrace  the  annual  interest  on  the  perma- 
nent Literary  Fund,  receipts  from  regular  and  special  taxes, 
and  receipts  from  appropriations.  Of  these  sources  of  the 
State  revenues  for  schools  the  first  two  deserve  consideration 
here. 

(1).  The  Literary  Fund:  By  constitutional  provisions  (sec- 
tions 134,  135,  133)  the  Literary  Fund  is  set  apart  as  a  perma- 
nent and  perpetual  fund  of  which  the  principal  must  be  pre- 
served intact  and  the  annual  income  only  be  made  available 
for  school  support.  It  consists  of  the  proceeds  of  all  public 
lands  donated  by  Congress  for  school  purposes,  of  all  escheated 
property,  of  all  waste  and  unappropriated  lands,  of  all  property 
accruing  to  the  State  by  forfeiture,  of  all  fines  collected  for 
offences  committed  against  the  State,  and  such  other  sums  as 
the  General  Assembly  may  appropriate.  In  1917-18  the  prin- 
cipal of  that  fund  was  $3,143,504,  the  capital  increment  was 
$276,747,  and  the  income  was  $106,749. 

By  constitutional  provisions  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
subject  to  legal  regulation,  is  entrusted  with  the  care  of  this 
fund,  but  the  General  Assembly  is  directed  to  apply  the  annual 
interest.  By  law  the  General  Assembly  has  instructed  the 
Board  of  Education  to  invest  "the  capital  and  unappropriated 
income."  For  the  most  part  the  annual  income  is  devoted  by 
that  board  to  the  payment  of  operating  expenses.1 

1  It  is  a  question  whether  Section  135  of  the  constitution  does  not 
require  the  annual  income  of  this  fund  to  be  distributed  in  the  same 
way  as  the  constitutional  tax.  If  so,  it  should  be  amended  so  as  to 
place  the  disposition  of  such  income  in  the  hands  of  the  State  Board 
of  Education. 


276  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

(2).  Constitutional  and  Special  Taxes:  Section  173  of  the 
State  constitution  requires  the  General  Assembly  to  levy  a 
State  capitation  tax  of  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  annum, 
of  which  one  dollar  must  be  applied  exclusively  in  aid  of  the 
public  schools  and  the  residue  returned  to  the  county  or  city, 
in  which  it  was  collected,  to  be  appropriated  either  for  school 
support  or  otherwise  as  the  local  authorities  may  determine. 
In  1917-18  the  available  revenue  from  this  source  was  $425,806. 
This  tax  can  be  counted  on  to  supply  but  a  very  limited  amount 
of  school  revenues.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  legacy  of  the  time  when 
State  revenues  for  school  support  were  secured  in  a  more  or 
less  hap-hazard  fashion  and  without  due  regard  for  establishing 
a  logical  relation  between  school  needs  and  school  support. 
As  a  supplementary  means  of  raising  school  funds  it  is  valuable. 
It  cannot,  of  course,  be  considered  a  principal  source  of  supply. 

The  principal  source  of  State  revenues  for  school  support  is 
the  school  tax  provided  for  by  section  135  of  the  constitution. 
There  provision  is  made  for  an  annual  tax  on  property  of  not 
less  than  one  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  to  be  applied 
to  schools  of  the  primary  and  grammar  grades.  However,  by 
statute  (Revised  Code  Section  2205)  it  is  provided  as  follows: 

All  taxable  real  estate  and  all  taxable  tangible  personal  property 
and  the  tangible  personal  property  of  public  service  corporations 
(except  rolling  stock  of  corporations  operating  railroads  by  steam)  and 
also  the  capital  of  merchants  is  hereby  segregated  and  made  subject  to 
local  taxation  only,  except  that  there  shall  be  a  school  tax  of  ten  cents 
on  every  one  hundred  dollars  of  the  assessed  value  of  said  real  estate, 
and  tangible  personal  property,  which  tax  shall  be  applied  to  the 
support  of  the  public  free  schools  for  the  equal  benefit  of  all  the  people 
of  the  State,  to  be  apportioned  on  a  basis  of  school  population. 

By  this  "Tax  Segregation"  law  the  principal  classes  of  assessi- 
ble  property  are  removed  from  the  field  of  State  taxation  for 
school  support  except  for  the  minimum  one  mill  tax  provided 
by  the  constitution.  Thus  the  possible  State  revenues  for 
school  support  are  greatly  curtailed  and  the  clear  intent  of  the 
constitution  for  a  maximum  tax  limit  of  five  mills  on  the  dollar 
is  practically  nullified.  In  all  probability  under  the  present 
"Tax  Segregation"  law  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  State  to 
raise  the  amount  needed  if  education  were  to  be  put  on  its 
proper  footing.  The  law  should  be  amended  so  as  to  fulfil  the 
intent  of  the  constitution  at  least. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  constitutional  school  tax  is  limited 


Financial  Support  277 

in  its  application  to  "primary  and  grammar  schools."  That  is  a 
provision  inherited  from  the  time  when  high  schools  were  con- 
sidered as  luxuries,  as  grades  more  or  less  supplementing  but 
scarcely  integral  parts  of  the  public  school  system,  and  before 
the  junior  high  school  existed.  It  does  not  apply  to  modern 
conditions  and  should  be  eliminated  from  the  constitution  and 
from  the  law,  necessary  regulations  concerning  the  use  of  such 
funds  to  safeguard  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  to  be 
made  by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

For  the  school  year  1917-18  the  State  school  tax  provided 
gross  school  revenues  to  the  amount  of  SI, 816,000.  The  consti- 
tutional limitations  to  the  disposition  of  those  revenues  and 
the  statutory  limitations  to  their  amount  necessitated  a  special 
levy  producing  $635,136  for  appropriations  needed. 

As  in  all  States  in  which  little  or  no  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  equalization  of  rates  of  assessed  valuation  most  State 
taxes  in  Virginia  fall  with  very  unequal  burden  on  people  in 
different  parts  of  the  State.  In  Table  123  are  presented  figures 
showing  for  real  estate  the  ratio  of  assessed  valuation  to  true 
valuation  as  reported  by  the  Tax  Commission  in  1914.  The 
facts  there  shown  are  too  familiar  to  citizens  of  Virginia  to 
require  detailed  consideration.  It  suffices  here  to  emphasize 
two  facts:  (1)  that  the  burdens  of  State  support  of  education 
must  always  fall  unequally  on  people  in  various  parts  of  Vir- 
ginia as  long  as  there  exist  no  means  for  equalizing  rates  of 
assessed  valuation  throughout  the  State;  and  (2)  the  funds 
available  for  school  support  through  State  taxation  must  always 
be  seriously  limited  as  long  as  the  constitutional  rate  of  taxation 
is  fixed  and  rates  of  assessed  valuation  fall  far  below  true  values. 
The  problem  is  one  of  general  importance,  but  is  particularly 
important  for  education  because  the  schools  alone  share  in  the 
State's  taxation  of  real  estate  and  certain  other  classes  of  taxable 
property.  For  school  support  it  is  imperative  that  some  means 
be  devised  to  equalize  the  rates  of  assessed  valuation  and  to 
raise  those  rates  within  reasonable  reach  of  true  values. 

(b).    local  school  funds 

The  principal  source  of  local  school  revenues  must  always  be 
taxation.  By  section  136  of  the  constitution  the  following 
provisions  are  made  for  local  tax  levies: 


278  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

Each  county,  city,  town  (if  the  same  be  a  separate  school  district) 
and  school  district  is  authorized  to  raise  additional  sums  by  a  tax  on 
property,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  five  mills  on  the  dollar  in  any 
one  year,  to  be  apportioned  and  expended  by  the  local  school  author- 
ities of  said  counties,  cities,  towns  and  districts  in  establishing  and 
maintaining  such  schools  in  their  judgment  the  public  welfare  may 
require,  provided,  that  such  primary  schools  as  may  be  established  in 
any  school  year  shall  be  maintained  at  least  four  months  of  that  school 
year  before  any  part  of  the  fund  assessed  and  collected  may  be  devoted 
to  the  establishment  of  schools  of  higher  grade.  The  boards  of  super- 
visors of  the  several  counties,  and  the  councils  of  the  several  cities  and 
towns,  if  the  same  be  separate  school  districts,  shall  provide  for  the 
levy  and  collection  of  such  local  school  taxes. 

This  provision  of  the  Constitution  has  been  interpreted  by 
the  courts  to  mean  that  for  any  district  the  combined  county 
and  district  tax  rates  cannot  in  the  aggregate  exceed  five  mills 
on  the  dollar  of  assessed  valuation. 

Here  three  facts  should  be  noted:  (1)  that  at  present  in  near 
ly  every  part  of  the  State  the  constitutional  limit  of  local 
taxation  has  been  reached  long  since  and  in  several  cases  it  has 
been  exceeded  (in  the  absence  of  legal  protest) ;  (2)  in  spite  of 
this  fact  very  many  counties  or  districts  are  totally  unable  to 
provide  sufficient  local  funds,  even  if  assessed  valuations  were 
properly  increased:  (3)  the  "tax  segregation"  law  has  removed 
from  the  field  of  local  taxation  certain  classes  of  property  which 
were  available  when  the  constitution  was  adopted.  In  the 
judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  present  limitations  to  local 
taxation  are  very  great  impediments  to  school  progress  in  the 
State.  They  serve  no  useful  purpose  and  should  be  repealed 
at  once,  the  amount  of  local  funds  to  be  raised  by  taxation 
being  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  people  of  the  county  or  city. 

iv. — DOES  VIRGINIA  EMPLOY  PROPER  METHODS 
OF  DISTRIBUTING  SCHOOL  FUNDS? 

By  constitutional  provision  (Section  135)  the  principal 
State  school  funds  are  apportioned  to  counties  and  cities  accord- 
ing to  the  school  population,  the  number  of  children  of  ages 
seven  to  nineteen  inclusive  being  the  basis  of  such  apportion- 
ment. Counties  apportion  State  funds  on  that  basis  and  also 
commonly  follow  this  practice  in  the  apportionment  of  county 
funds.    By  law  both  the  principal  State  funds  and  county  funds 


Financial  Support  279 

must  be  used  exclusively  for  the  pay  of  teachers,  and  by  consti- 
tutional provision  the  major  part  of  State  funds  may  be  applied 
solely  to  primary  and  grammar  schools. 

The  apportionment  of  school  funds  on  the  basis  of  school 
population  was  formerly  the  method  employed  in  almost  every 
State.  It  is  a  bad  practice,  however,  and  has  been  abandoned 
in  most  progressive  states,  the  principal  objections  to  it  being 
those  indicated  below. 

(1).  The  distribution  of  funds  on  the  basis  of  school  popula- 
tion is  grossly  unfair  because  the  number  of  children  in  the 
school  population  has  no  direct  relation  to  the  number  of  chil- 
dren actually  enrolled  in  the  schools  or  to  the  total  amount  of 
education  provided.  Thus  in  1917-18  the  number  of  children 
actually  enrolled  in  the  schools  of  Fauquier  County  was  only 
52.5  per  cent  of  the  supposed  school  population,  while  in  Dicken- 
son County  98.8  per  cent  of  the  supposed  school  population 
was  enrolled.  Likewise,  in  the  same  school  year  the  average 
daily  attendance  in  Fauquier  County  was  only  30  per  cent  of 
the  supposed  school  population  while  in  Dickenson  County  it 
was  70  per  cent.  Yet  each  of  those  counties  received  State 
funds  on  the  basis  of  the  school  population.  Again  in  1917-18 
Alexandria  County  with  a  supposed  school  population  of  4,759  but 
with  an  enrolment  of  2,631  and  an  average  daily  attendance 
of  only  1,621  received  more  State  aid  than  Alleghany  County 
with  a  supposed  school  population  of  4,445  but  an  enrolment 
of  3,244  and  an  average  daily  attendance  of  2,444.  Through- 
out the  State  the  grossest  inequalities  of  State  aid  arise  from 
similar  differences  between  school  population,  school  enrolment, 
and  school  attendance.  As  a  matter  of  actual  fact  the  present 
method  of  apportionment  pays  a  premium  to  counties  for  keep- 
ing children  out  of  school,  since  funds  are  supplied  on  the  basis 
of  school  population  but  expended  on  the  basis  of  attendance. 

(2).  Closely  related  to  this  is  the  unfairness  which  arises 
from  the  fact  that,  within  certain  limits,  State  and  county  funds 
are  apportioned  without  definite  relation  to  the  amount  of 
education  provided,  as  measured  by  the  length  of  the  school 
term.  Counties  and  districts  having  a  school  term  of  seven 
months,  for  instance,  receive  per  child  of  school  age  the  same 
amount  of  State  or  county  aid  as  counties  or  districts  having  a 


280  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

school  term  of  nine  months.  Thus,  for  example,  Lancaster  Coun- 
ty, with  an  average  school  term  of  140  days,  received  from  the 
Constitutional  tax  fund  in  1917-18  just  as  much  State  aid  per 
child  of  school  age  as  Northampton  County  with  an  average 
school  term  of  164  days,  Henrico  County  with  an  average 
school  term  of  188  days,  or  Norfolk  City  with  an  average  of 
200  days.  By  the  present  method  of  apportionment  the  State 
pays  counties  or  cities,  and  counties  pay  districts,  a  premium 
for  short  school  terms. 

(3).  Again  unfairness  is  found  in  the  present  method  of 
apportionment  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  adequacy  of  instruc- 
tion is  ignored.  Thus  in  1917-18  Southampton  County  with 
one  teacher  for  every  64  white  and  every  82  colored  children  of 
the  school  population  received  the  same  amount  of  State  aid 
per  child  of  school  age  as  Craig  County  with  one  teacher  for  every 
36  children  of  the  school  population,  or  Albemarle  County  with 
one  teacher  for  every  40  white  and  every  54  colored  children 
of  the  school  population.  Again  the  State  pays  the  county  and 
the  county  pays  the  district  a  premium  for  maintaining  an 
inadequate  teaching  force. 

(4).  At  present  the  school  census  is  taken  once  every  five 
years,  with  the  result  that  gains  or  losses  in  population  may 
frequently  make  the  latest  figures  for  school  population  very 
erroneous.  Thus  the  school  census  (1915)  for  Newport  News, 
Portsmouth,  Norfolk,  Petersburg,  and  Hopewell  had  little 
relation  to  the  school  [population  of  those  cities  in  1918-19.  Under 
the  present  plan  the  figures  on  which  the  apportionment  is 
based  can  be  assumed  correct  only  every  fifth  year. 

(5).  The  present  method  of  apportionment  disregards  almost 
entirely  the  great  differences  amoung  counties,  cities,  and  dis- 
tricts in  their  ability  to  provide  for  school  support  out  of  local 
funds.  The  wealthiest  cities  and  the  poorest  cities,  the  wealth- 
iest counties  and  the  poorest  counties,  all  receive  alike  the 
same  relative  amount  of  State  aid.  Thus  considering  real  estate 
only  we  find  such  great  differences  as  the  following:  Scott 
County  and  Frederick  County  have  approximately  the  same 
rates  of  tax  assessment  (26.0  and  26.1  per  cent  respectively), 
but  Scott  County  has  only  $231  of  assessed  real  estate  for  each 


Financial  Support  281 

pupil  enrolled,  while  Frederick  County  has  SI, 298.  Again 
Henrico  County  and  Lee  County  have  nearly  the  same  rates 
of  tax  assessment  (28.0  and  27.4  per  cent  respectively),  but 
Henrico  County  has  S3, 230  of  assessed  real  estate  for  each 
pupil  enrolled,  while  Lee  County  has  only  S430.  Finally, 
Caroline  County  and  Norfolk  City  have  approximately  the 
same  rates  of  assessment  (50.8  and  51.3  respectively),  but 
Caroline  County  has  S639  of  assessed  real  estate  for  each  pupil 
enrolled,  while  Norfolk  City  has  $4,182. 

In  calling  attention  to  such  inequalities  of  wealth  among  the 
various  counties  and  cities  it  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  any 
attempt  should  be  made  to  eliminate  that  factor  entirely. 
That  would  neither  be  possible  nor  wise.  It  is  intended,  how- 
ever, to  point  out  that,  while  the  majority  of  counties  and  cities 
are  able  to  support  their  schools  properly,  others  can  do  so  only 
with  a  very  unfair  burden  of  local  taxation,  and  some  cannot 
possibly  support  their  schools  without  special  aid  from  the  State. 
For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  set  apart  a  portion  of  the  State 
funds  to  be  employed  in  aid  of  schools  in  counties,  cities,  or 
districts,  where  adequate  support  of  education  through  local 
funds,  supplemented  only  by  the  regular  State  aid,  would  either 
entail  excessive  financial  burdens  or  be  totally  impossible. 

(6).  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  present  method  of 
apportionment  of  the  State  school  fund  makes  no  distinction 
between  counties,  cities,  and  districts  which  make  little  effort 
to  provide  proper  education  and  those  which  make  every  effort 
to  maintain  good  schools.  Thus,  in  1917-18  Grayson  County 
received  69  per  cent  of  all  school  funds  and  87  per  cent  of  all 
instructional  funds  from  the  State,  though  expending  only  $6.51 
for  instruction  per  white  pupil  enrolled  and  having  a  very  low 
rate  of  assessed  valuation  (19.1  per  cent  on  real  estate  at  the 
time  of  the  report  of  the  Special  Tax  Commission.)  Thus 
Carroll  County  received  54  per  cent  of  all  school  funds  and  76 
per  cent  of  all  instructional  funds  from  the  State,  though 
expending  only  $6.37  for  instruction  per  white  pupil  enrolled 
and  having  the  lowest  rate  of  assessed  valuation  in  the  State 
(12.5  per  cent  on  real  estate  at  the  time  of  the  report  of  the 
Special  Tax  Commission).1    Such  counties  may  deserve  special 

1    For  other  instances  see  Table  123. 


282  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

State  aid,  but  such  aid  should  always  be  conditioned  by  evidence 
that  the  county  itself  is  assuming  a  reasonable  share  of  its 
responsibility.  The  State  funds  should  be  apportioned  to 
counties  with  such  limitations  that  no  county  or  city  can  shift 
its  own  legitimate  responsibility  to  the  State. 

All  of  these  defects  in  the  present  method  of  apportioning 
State  and  county  funds  may  be  remedied:  (a)  by  providing  for 
their  apportionment  on  the  basis  of  the  aggregate  number  of 
days  attended  by  pupils  and  of  the  number  of  teachers  employed; 
(b)  by  providing  a  special  State  fund  to  assist  counties  or  cities 
unable  to  support  their  schools  with  a  reasonable  rate  of  assess- 
ment and  taxation;  (c)  by  conditioning  such  apportionments 
to  some  degree  on  the  extent  to  which  reasonable  local  support 
is  provided.  Recommendations  covering  these  points  are  pre- 
sented in  the  following  section. 

V. — PROPOSALS  FOR  SCHOOL  SUPPORT  IN  VIRGINIA 

Above  it  has  been  shown  that  financial  support  for  the 
public  schools  in  Virginia  is  very  far  from  being  sufficient  to 
meet  even  minima  standards,  that  provisions  for  raising  school 
funds  are  faulty,  and  that  the  present  methods  of  apportioning 
funds  involve  serious  defects.  It  remains  to  suggest  means  by 
which  remedies  may  be  applied  and  school  support  in  Virginia 
placed  on  a  sound  foundation. 

1.  The  primary  problem  of  school  support  to  be  solved 
involves  the  amount  and  quality  of  education  which  should  be 
provided.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Survey  Staff  the  minimum 
amount  of  education  (per  year)  which  should  be  considered  at  all  is 
nine  months  (180  actual  school  days),  and  the  minimum  quality 
should  be  that  which  can  be  secured  at  the  rate  for  instruc- 
tional costs  of  twenty-five  dollars,  or  for  all  costs  of  thirty-five 
to  forty  dollars,  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  Since, 
however,  the  length  of  the  school  term  varies  widely  in  different 
parts  of  the  State  the  minimum  standard  would  better  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance.  On  such 
a  basis  the  minimum  standard  should  be  approximately  fifteen 
cents  per  days'  attendance  for  instructional  costs,  or  twenty- 
five  cents  per  day  for  all  costs. 


Financial  Support  283 

2.  The  second  problem  to  be  solved  involves  the  proportion 
of  school  expenditures  to  be  borne  by  the  State  and  by  the 
•county  or  city.  Virginia's  present  practice  is,  for  the  most 
part,  satisfactory,  approximately  one-half  of  the  instructional 
costs  being  borne  by  the  State,  while  the  expenses  of  operation, 
maintenance,  and  permanent  outlay  are  paid  almost  entirely 
out  of  local  funds.  The  only  important  change  needed  is  pro- 
vision for  the  special  relief  fund  mentioned  below. 

3.  The  third  problem  is  that  involving  the  methods  of 
raising  necessary  funds.  Here  four  principal  reforms  are  needed: 
(a)  provision  for  carrying  out  the  intent  of  the  Constitution 
oy  restoring  the  five  mill  limit  of  State  school  taxation  on  real 
•estate,  personal  tangible  property,  and  the  personal  property 
of  corporations  in  the  "tax  segregation"  law;  (b)  repeal  of  the 
Constitutional  limit  of  five  mills  for  combined  county  and 
district  taxation;  (c)  provision  for  making  the  county  the  unit 
of  local  administration  and  the  primary  agency  for  local  taxa- 
tion; (d)  provision  for  the  equalization  of  assessed  valuation 
and  for  a  higher  rate  of  assessment;  (e)  that  provision  be  made 
to  reduce  to  a  reasonable  amount  and  to  establish  on  a  reason- 
able basis  the  commissions  paid  to  county  and  city  treasurers 
($159,103  in  1917-18).1 

4.  A  fourth  problem  is  that  of  the  amount  of  money  for 
school  purposes  to  be  raised  by  the  State.  Here  four  general 
classes  of  funds  are  involved:  (a)  the  general  school  fund  for 
apportionment  to  county  and  city  schools;  (b)  the  special  relief 
fund  for  the  aid  of  counties  or  cities  which  cannot  support  their 
schools  without  oppressive  financial  burdens;  (c)  the  fund  for 
general  State  control,  including  the  operation  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education  and  other  State  agencies  of  adminis- 
tration; (d)  any  special  funds  which  may  be  required,  e.g.,  a 
fund  to  meet  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  or  a 
special  fund  for  free  text-books  if  borne  by  the  State.  Of  these 
funds  (c)  and  (d)  can  best  be  provided  in  conformance  with 
special  budgets  prepared  annually.  Funds  (a)  and  (b) ,  however, 
should  be  cared  for  by  definite  legal  provisions. 

1  The  total  salaries  paid  to  division  superintendents  (county  and 
city)  for  1917-18  were  $150,661 — less  than  the  commissions  paid  to 
county  and  city  treasurers  for  handling  school  funds. 


284  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

The  general  State  school  fund  for  instructional  purposes  to 
be  apportioned  to  counties  and  cities  should  be  determined  on 
the  basis  of  the  minimum  desirable  standard  adopted  for 
instructional  costs  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance.  If 
the  proposed  minimum  standard  of  825  per  pupil  be  adopted 
and  if  the  State  continues  its  present  policy  of  providing  one- 
half  of  the  instructional  cost,  then  the  general  State  school 
fund  will  require  an  amount  equal  to  the  number  of  children  in 
average  daily  attendance  multiplied  by  $12  or  $13.  For 
reasons  already  given,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  determine 
the  amount  on  the  basis  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance. 
On  that  basis  the  general  State  fund  will  require  an  amount 
equal  to  seven  or  eight  cents  multiplied  by  the  aggregate  days 
attendance. 

It  is  recommended  that  legal  provision  be  made  for  the 
annual  levy  of  a  State  school  tax  to  produce  annually  at  least 
$13  for  every  pupil  in  average  dailjr  attendance  or  eight  cents 
for  each  day  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance  during  the  pre- 
ceding school  year,  $12  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 
or  seven  cents  per  day's  attendance  to  be  set  apart  for  general 
apportionment  as  suggested  below,  and  $1  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance  or  one  cent  per  day's  attendance  to  be  set 
apart  to  be  applied  to  the  special  relief  fund  for  needy  counties 
or  cities.  The  better  method  by  far  is  that  which  is  based  on 
the  aggregate  days'  attendance. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  method  above  recommended  pro- 
vides automatically  for  the  expansion  (or  contraction)  of  the 
general  school  fund  according  to  the  annual  increase  (or  decrease) 
of  the  amount  of  actual  instruction  to  be  provided.  This  is  in 
very  definite  contrast  with  the  present  system  of  a  fixed  one 
mill  tax  in  Virginia  or  with  any  fixed  millage  tax.  Whatever 
be  the  cost  standard  set  the  school  fund  should  have  a  definite 
relation  to  the  units  involved,  i.e.,  the  number  of  children  to  be 
educated,  the  amount  of  education  to  be  provided,  and  the 
quality  of  instruction  determined  upon.  No  fixed  millage  tax 
can  meet  those  conditions  from  year  to  year.  The  plan  pro- 
posed does. 

5.  The  final  problem  to  be  solved  is  that  involving  the 
method  of  apportioning  the  general  State  school  fund  and  the 
special  relief  fund  to  counties  and  cities. 


Financial  Support  285 

It  is  doubtful  that  any  plan  for  the  apportionment  of  State 
school  funds  could  be  worse  than  that  now  employed  in  Vir- 
ginia. Its  serious  defects  have  already  been  pointed  out.  It 
remains  to  suggest  a  plan  of  apportionment  which  will  remedy 
those  defects.    To  that  end  it  is  recommended: 

(a).  That  the  general  State  school  fund  be  distributed  as 
follows :  (i)  approximately  one-third  to  be  apportioned  to  coun- 
ties and  cities  on  the  basis  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance; 
(ii)  approximately  one-third  to  be  apportioned  to  counties  and 
cities  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  full  time  teachers  employed; 
(iii)  approximately  one-third  to  be  apportioned  to  counties 
and  cities  on  the  basis  of  the  adequacy  of  local  provision  for 
instructional  funds  according  to  regulations  determined  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education  or  by  the  General  Assembly. 

(b).  That  the  special  relief  fund  be  distributed  to  needy 
counties  and  cities  according  to  regulations  to  be  determined 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education,  with  proper  regard  to  the 
available  resources  of  such  counties  or  cities  and  to  the  adequacy 
of  local  school  support. 

All  problems  of  public  education  ultimately  involve  the 
question  of  finance.  In  the  long  run  the  Commonwealth  of 
Virginia  must  get  exactly  the  amount  and  quality  of  education 
for  which  it  pays.  It  is  now  paying  for  very  limited  and  very 
poor  education.  If  the  State  desires  better  education  it  must 
pay  for  it.  Virginia  should  decide  at  once  whether  she  is  to 
continue  her  present  policy  or  adopt  a  policy  which  will  provide 
for  the  citizens  of  Virginia  educational  facilities  at  least  equal 
to  those  provided  in  other  States. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  the  State  adopt  a  minimum  standard  for  the  average 
cost  of  education,  that  standard  at  present  to  be  not  less  than 
fifteen  cents  per  unit  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance  for 
instructional  costs  (teachers'  salaries),  or  not  less  than  twenty- 
five  cents  per  unit  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance  for  all 
school  costs. 

2.  That  legal  provision  be  made  for  State  instructional  funds 
to  be  determined  annually  or  biennially  on  the  basis  of  not  less 


286  The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 

than  eight  cents  per  unit  of  the  aggregate  days'  attendance, 
seven-eighths  of  that  fund  to  be  set  apart  as  a  general  instruc- 
tional fund  to  be  apportioned  to  all  counties  and  cities,  and  one- 
eighth  to  be  set  apart  as  a  special  relief  fund  for  aid  to  needy 
counties  or  cities. 

3.  That  legal  provision  be  made  for  the  distribution  of  the 
general  State  instructional  fund  as  follows:  (a)  one-third  to  be 
apportioned  to  counties  and  cities  on  the  basis  of  the  aggregate 
days'  attendance;  (b)  one-third  to  be  apportioned  to  counties 
and  cities  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  teachers  employed; 
(c)  one-third  on  the  basis  of  the  adequacy  of  local  support 
according  to  regulations  to  be  determined  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education  or  by  the  General  Assembly. 

4.  That  the  special  relief  fund  be  distributed  to  needy 
counties  and  cities  according  to  regulations  to  be  determined 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

5.  That  the  annual  income  of  the  Literary  Fund  be  devoted 
to  increasing  the  principal  of  that  fund  until  it  amounts  to 
$5,000,000,  after  which  the  annual  income  should  be  devoted 
(a)  one-half  to  increase  the  principal,  and  (b)  one-half  to  provide 
subsidies  in  encouragement  of  special  phases  of  education. 

6.  That  the  Constitutional  limit  on  local  taxation  be  repealed. 

7.  That  all  provisions  of  the  Constitution  or  of  the  code 
inconsistent  with  the  above  recommendations  be  repealed  or 
so  amended  as  to  permit  the  fulfilment  of  the  recommendations 
made. 


Statistical  Tables 


287 


TABLE  1* 

Showing :  (A)  The  number  of  counties  having  various  numbers  of  persons 
to  each  square  mile  in  1910;*  (B)  the  number  of  counties  in  Virginia 
having  in  1910  various  per  cents  of  their  population  rural  (resident  in  the 
open  country  or  in  communities  of  less  than  2,500  population)  ;3  (C)  the 
number  of  counties  having  in  1910  various  per  cents  of  their  population 
colored. 3 


A* 

B3 

C3 

Popula- 
tion per 

Number   of    coun- 
ties belonging  to 
each  group 

i 

3 

2*3 

8-J 

PL, 

i 

a 

3 
O 
O 

«M 

o 

u 
a 
A 

S  a> 

3  ° 

1 

3 

2  « 

Z.  - 

°o 

-M  ° 

si 

Ph~ 

i 

a 

3 
O 

o 

«M 

o 

H 

o 

P    3! 

3.2 

m 

*-m 
•  m 

o 

square 
mile 

0) 

-m 

-a 
u 

"o 
U 

"3 

-m 
O 

H 

CM 

o 

S-c 

a> 

a 

3 

55 

5  or  less 
6-10.... 

11-15.... 

16-20.... 

21-25.... 

26-30.... 

31-35.... 

36-40.... 

41-45.... 

46-50.... 

Over  50 

6 
18 

11 
16 

17 
7 
8 
6 
2 
9 

24 
15 

17 

18 

12 

6 

1 

3 

4 

4 

5 
13 

20 
15 
15 
9 
19 

1-10 
11-20.. 
21-30 
31-40 
41-50 
51-60 
61-70 
71-80 
81-90 
91-99 

100 

1 
2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
8 
6 
3 
72 

Lessthanl 

1.0-  4.9 

5.0-  9.9 

10.0-14.9 

15.0-19.9 

20.0-29.9 

30.0-39.9 

40.0-49.9 

50.0-59.9 

60.0-69.9 

71.7 

2 

10 

8 

5 

6 

12 

14 

11 

22 

8 

2 

1 
4 
4 
7 
1 

Total 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

17 

1  Tables  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910) 
Virginia  Supplement. 

2  Figures  for  counties  (exclusive  of  cities)  enumerated  in  the  Inir- 
teenth  Census. 

3  Figures  for  the  counties  inclusive  of  the  city  population. 


288 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  2' 

Distribution  of  the  estimated  population  in  1917. 


SIZES  OF  TOWNS 
POPULATION 

Number 
of  towns 

Total 
population 

Per  Cent  of  total 
Population 

Separate 

Cumulative 

100-199 

424 

139 

87 

37 

30 

13 

13 

12 

4 

25 

18 

12 

7 

4 

18 

54,752 

32,630 

29,263 

16,590 

15,933 

8,364 

9,627 

9,966 

3,742 

30,381 

31,315 

29,286 

24,032 

18,122 

511,585 

2.5 
1.5 
1.3 
0.8 
0.7 
0.4 
0.5 
0.5    . 
0.2 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.1 
0.8 
23.2 

2  5 

200-299 

4  0 

300-399 

5  3 

400-499 

6  1 

500-599 

6  8 

600-699 

7  2 

700-799 

7  7 

800-899 

8.2 

900-999 

1,000-1,499 

8.4 
9.8 

1,500-1,999 

11.2 

2,000-2,999 

12.5 

3,000-3,999... 

13.6 

4,000-4,999 

14.4 

5,000  and  over 

37.6 

Total     in     towns     100 
and  over 

843 

825,638 
1,376,884 

37.6 
62.4 

37.6 

Total  in  rest  of  State 

62.4 

Estimated   total   popu- 
lation in  1917 

2,202,522 

100.0 

100.0 

1  Figures  compiled  from  those  given  in  the  Rand-McNally  Virginia 
Guide.  They  should  be  considered  as  approximate  only,  but  valuable 
for  general  analysis.    No  exactness  is  to  be  expected. 


Statistical  Tables 


289 


TABLE  3' 

Showing  the  distribution  of  occupations  in  Virginia  for  1910. 


OCCUPATIONS 


Number 
engaged 


Per  cent 
engaged 


Agriculture 

Mining 

Manufacturing 

Transportation 

Trade 

Public  Service 

Professional  Service 

Domestic  and  Personal  Service 
Clerical  Occupations 

All  gainful  occupations 


359,420 
13,218 

161,885 
49,033 
52,324 
10,876 
25,552 

102,841 
20,419 


795,568 


45.2 
1.7 

20.3 
6.2 
6.6 
1.4 
3.2 

12.9 
2.6 


100.0 


1     Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol. 
IV,  pp.  44-45. 


290 


The  PublicjSchools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  4> 

Showing  the  percentages  of  illiteracy  in  Virginia  according  to 
the  Federal  Census  of  1910 


Persons  over  10  years 

Children  of 

of 

age 

ages  10-12 

a 

— 

CD 

d 

>> 

a 

CLASSES 

•   3 

3 

+3 
-t-3 

o 

.of 
erac 

's 
sitio 

a 

*> 

a 

03  O 

•*2  o, 

03  O 
"2  Q, 

to 

0> 

<u 

a 

oj-3 

a  ** 

w 

V 

o 

So 

O"" 

So 

(h 

M 

u 

«-, 

h 

j-, 

<D 

0) 

0) 

•  fH 

03 

•  fH 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

> 

Ph 

r> 

Native  white,  native  parentage 

2.4 

10.0 

8.2 

41o 

5.7 

41-42 

Native  white,  foreign  or  mixed 

parentage 

0.6 

2.0 

1.2 



-  0.6 

Foreign  born 

8.7 

9.8 

9.2 

4.2 

Negroes 

22.1 

32.8 

30.0 

426 

16.0 

40 

All  classes 

9.2 

17.2 

15.2 

40c 

9.2 

39 

1  Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Thirteenth  Census,  Vol. 
I,  pp.  1198,  1209,  1231. 

a  The  only  States  with  greater  illiteracy  for  this  class  being: 
North  Carolina  (12.3%);  South  Carolina  (10.5%);  Kentucky  (10.7%); 
Tennessee  (9.9%);  Alabama  (10.1%);  Louisiana  (15.0%);  New  Mexico 
(15.5%). 

b  The  only  States  with  greater  illiteracy  for  this  class  being: 
North  Carolina  (31.9%);  South  Carolina  (38.7%);  Georgia  (36.5%); 
Alabama  (40.1%) ;  Louisiana  (48.4%) ;  Mississippi  (35.6%). 

c  The  only  States  with  greater  illiteracy  for  this  class  being: 
North  Carolina  (18.5%);  South  Carolina  (25.7%);  Georgia  (20.7%); 
Alabama  (22.9%);  Mississippi  (22.4%);  Louisiana  (29.0%);  New 
Mexico  (20.2%) ;  Arizona  (20.9%). 


Statistical  Tables 


291 


TABLE  5i 

Showing  the  numbers  of  counties  in  Virginia  having  various  percentages 

of  illiteracy 


Federal  Census,  1910 


State  School  Census,  1915 


Per  Cent 


Persons  over 

Ages 

10  years 

10-20 

Both 

0 

+3 

Xi 

"O 

03 
O 

races 

£ 

O 

H 

Ages  7-19 


Per  Cent 


« 

-a 

a3 

<D 

+3 

O 

J3 

O 

£ 

O 

o 
H 


Less  than  5 . 
5.0-  9.9... 
10.0-14.9... 
15.0-19.9... 
20.0-24.9... 
25.0-29.9... 
30.0-34.9... 
35.0-39.9. 
40.0-44. 
45.0-49. 
50.0-54.9. 
55.0-59.9. 
60.0-65.3. 


.9. 
.9. 


14 
38 
23 
17 

7 


1 


3 

4 

13 

25 

18 

21 

7 

2 

1 


1 

5 

13 

27 

19 

27 

7 

1 


10 
41 
31 
14 
4 


Less  than  1 . 

1.0-  1.9... 

2.0-  2.9... 

3.0-  3.9. 

4.0-  4. 

5.0-  9. 
10.0-14. 
15.0-19. 
20.0-24.9. 
25.0-29.9. 
30.0-34.9. 
35.0-39.9. 


Average. 


22 
15 
20 
10 

9 
20 

4 


3.3 


3 
6 
5 
8 
7 
30 
23 
8 
4 
2 
1 
1 


9.7 


5 

12 

12 

9 

15 

32 

10 

3 

1 

1 


5.5 


1  Table  compiled  from  data  presented  in  the  Thirteenth  Census, 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  936ff.,  and  in  the  Report  of  the  (Virginia)  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  pp.  101-102. 

2  Six  counties  contained  each  too  few  colored  persons  to  warrant 
proportioning. 

3  Two  counties  not  accounted  for  in  the  State  Census  because  of 
very  small  Negro  population. 


292 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  6 

Showing  the  number  of  counties  keeping  their  schools  open 
for  various  lengths  of  time  1917-18 


Length  of  the 

All  non-city  schools 

One-  and  two-room 
schools 

School  Year 
in  Months 

White 

Colored 

Both 

White 

Colored 

Both 

3 . 5  or  less 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

3.6-4.0 

1 

4.1-4.5.. 

4.6-5.0 

8 

15 

30 

18 

14 

3 

3 

2 

1 
1 

8 
15 

38 
32 
27 

27 

24 

10 

7 

5 

2 

1 

11 

22 

16 

21 

15 

7 

2 

2 

1 

1 

7 

21 

31 

13 

15 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

8 

5.1-5.5 

32 

5.6-6.0 

8 
14 
13 

24 
21 

8 
7 
4 

1 

53 

6.1-6.5 

29 

6.6-7.0 

36 

7.1-7.5 

18 

7.6-8.0 

9 

8.1-8.5 

3 

8.6-9.0 

2 

9.1-9.5 

3 

9.6-10.0 

2 

Medians  in 
months 

7.3 

6.0 

6.9 

6.5 

5.9 

6.1 

Table  compiled  from  figures  furnished  by  the  records  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education.  Cf.  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent, 
1917-18,  pp.  73-75. 


Statistical  Tables 


293 


TABLE  7 

Showing  for  748  white  and  230  colored  schools  the  number  of  non-city 
schools  having  in  1917-18  school  terms  of  various  lengths 


White 

Colored 

Length  of  the 

School  Year 

in  Months 

Number 

Per 
Cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 

Number 

Per 

Cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 

5  or  less 

5.1-6.0 

65 

226 

266 

148 

36 

7 

8.69 
30.21 
35.56 
19.80 

4.81 
.93 

8.69 
38.90 
74.46 
94.26 
99.07 
100.00 

74 
79 
43 

22 
7 
5 

32.17 

34.35 

18.70 

9.57 

3.04 

2.17 

32.17 

66.52 

6.1-7.0 

85.22 

7.1-8.0 

94.79 

8.1-9.0 

97.88 

Over  9.0 

100.00 

Total 

748 

100.00 

100.00 

230 

100.00 

100.00 

Medians 

6 

9  month 

s 

5.8  months 

Averages 

6 

9  month 

s 

6.1  months 

Table  compiled  from  statistics  furnished  by  the  State  Department  of 
Education,  Form  T-24. 


294 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  8 

Showing  the  number  of  months  contracted  for  with  teachers  for  1918-19 — 

Non-city  schools 


White  schools 

Colored  schools 

Number  of 

Months 

Contracted  for 

Number 

Per 

Cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
Per 

Cent 

Number 

Per 
Cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

113 

382 

1,879 

629 

449 

12 

3.26 
11.03 
54.24 
18.16 
12.96 
.35 

3.26 
14.29 
68.53 
86.69 
99.65 
100.00 

87 

422 

354 

89 

22 

4 

8.89 

43.15 

36.20 

9.10 

2.25 

.41 

8.89 
52.04 
88.24 
97.34 
99.59 

10 

100.00 

Total 

3,464 

100.00 

100.00 

978 

100.00 

100.00 

Medians 

6.66  months 

5.95  months 

Averages 

7.27  months 

6 .  54  months 

Table  compiled  from  statistics  furnished  by  the  State  Department  of 
Education,  Form  S — No.  4. 


Statistical  Tables 


295 


TABLE  9 

Showing  Virginia's  position  with  respect  to  enrolment  in  1910 


Per  Cent  of  Children  Attending 
School  in  the  School  Year  1909-10 


National 
record 


Virginia's 
record 


Virginia's 

position 

among  48 

States 


Persons  6-20  years  of  age 

Children  6-9  years  of  age 

Children  10-14  years  of  age 

Children  15-20  years  of  age 

Children  6-14  years  of  age 

Children    of   native    white   parentage 

6-14  years  of  age 

Negro  children  6-14  years  of  age 

Children   of   native   white   parentage 

6-20  years  of  age 

Negro  children  6-20  years  of  age 


62.3 
73.5 
88.2 
32.9 
81.4 

92.6 
90.9 

66.9 
47.3 


56.3 
54.0 
80.5 
35.6 
68.3 

73.2 

58.7 

61.2 

47.2 


43 
45 
40 
24 
43 

44 
42 

43 
42 


Table  compiled  from  statistics  in  the  Thirteenth  (Federal)  Census, 
Vol.  I,  p.  1100  ff. 


TABLE  10 

Showing  enrolment  and  attendance  in  Virginia,  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States,  and  in  the  United  States,  1915-16 


ITEM 

Virginia 

South 

Atlantic 

States 

United 

States 

Position 

of 
Virginia 

Per  cent    of  children  5-18 

Number  of  pupils  attending 
daily    for    each    100    en- 
rolled  

73.0 

69.8 

77.9 
98.4 

76.3 

69.4 

71.6 
93.8 

75.8 

75.5 

91.7 
120.9 

34 
34 

Average    days'    attendance 
for  each  child  5-18  years 
of  age 

40 

Average  da3's  attended  by 
each  pupil  enrolled 

35 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Report  of  the  (U.  S.)  Com- 
mission of  Education,  1917,  Vol.  II,  pp.  72,  74,  75. 


296 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  11a 

Shotting  school  population,  enrolment,  and  attendance  in  Virginia 


from 

1890  to  1918 

WHITE 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1915 

1917-18 

Total  population 

b  1,020,122 

1,192,855 

1,389,809 

1,488.286 

1,527,587 

School  population. . . 

c     292.569 

341,992 

398,408 

435,255 

463,242 

School  enrolment.. . . 

220,210 

250,697 

282,452 

343,159 

348,918 

Average  daily 

attendance 

129,973 

149,915 

186,239 

233,657 

234,725 

COLORED 

Total  population. . . . 

b     635,438 

660,722 

671,096 

676,283 

678,358 

School  population. . . 

c     206,200 

214,404 

217,760 

222,258 

224,958 

School  enrolment... . 

122,059 

119,898 

119,657 

131,051 

132,316 

Average  daily 

attendance 

68,317 

66,549 

73,155 

83,483 

82,631 

a  Table  compiled  from  statistics  of  the  State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation and  of  the  Federal  Census  for  1910. 

b  Total  population  estimated  for  1915  and  1917-18  on  the  basis  of 
the  average  annual  increase. 

c  Figures  for  1890  and  1900  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  relation 
of  school  population  (seven  to  nineteen,  inclusive)  to  the  total  popu- 
lation. In  1902  the  State  changed  the  basis  of  school  population,  so 
that  State  figures  for  1890  and  1900  cannot  be  compared  with  those 
for  1915.  Figures  for  1917-18  (school  population)  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  the  average  annual  increase  1910  to  1915. 


Statistical  Tables 


297 


TABLE  12 

Percentages  based  on  the  figures  in  Table  11 


WHITE 


1890 


1900 


1910 


1915 


1917-18 


Per     cent      of     total     population 

enrolled 

Per    cent      of    school    population 

enrolled 

Per    cent      of    school    population 

attending  daily 

Per  cent     of  enrolment  attending 

daily 

COLORED 

Per     cent      of     total     population 

enrolled 

Per    cent      of    school    population 

enrolled 

Per    cent      of    school    population 

attending  daily 

Per  cent    of  enrolment  attending 

daily 


21.6 

21.0 

20.3 

23.1 

75.3 

73.3 

70.9 

78.8 

44.4 

43.8 

46.8 

53.7 

59.0 

59.8 

62.4 

68.1 

19.3 

18.2 

17.8 

19.4 

59.2 

55.9 

54.5 

59.0 

33.1 

31.0 

33.6 

37.6 

56.0 

55.5 

61.1 

63.7 

22.8 
75.3 
50.7 
67.3 

19.5 
58.8 
36.1 
62.5 


298 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  13 

Showing  the  number  of  counties  having  various  records  for  attendance  in 
1917-18,  as  based  on  school  population  (1915)  and  as  based  on  school 
enrolment. 


Per  Cent  of  Attendance, 
1917-18 

Based  on  school 
population 

Based  on  school 
enrolment 

White 

Colored 

White 

Colored 

15  or  less 

2 

4 

10 

16 

30 

14 

9 

4 

5 

2 

16-20 

21-25 

26-30 

31-35 

3 

8 

17 

31 

19 

13 

3 

4 

1 

36-40 

41-45 

• 

4 

46-50 

12 

51-55 

8 
13 
29 
27 
16 
4 
2 

14 

56-  60 

22 

61-  65 

23 

66-  70 

14 

71-75 

1 

5 

76-80 

3 

81-85 

86-90 

91-95 

1 

96-100 

1 

Number  of  counties 

100 

97a 

100 

97a 

a  No  schools  for  Negroes  in  Craig,  Dickenson  and  Buchanan 
Counties. 

Table  compiled  from  figures  supplied  by  the  records  of  the  State 
Department  of  Education,  Report  of  Superintendent,  1917-18,  pp. 
67-69. 


Statistical  Tables 


299 


TABLE  14 

Showing  the  per  cent,  of  attendance  (based  on  enrolment)  for  1917-18  in 
62J+  white  rural  schools  and  218  colored  rural  schools 


White  schools 

Colored  schools 

Per  Cent  op 
Attendance 

Number 

Per 
cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 

Number 

Per 
cent 

Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 

Under  26 

26-30 

31-35 

36-40 

2 
2 
14 
15 
36 
62 
73 
99 
80 
71 
70 
55 
28 
16 
1 

.4 

.4 

2.2 

2.4 

5.8 

9.9 

11.7 

15.8 

12.8 

11.3 

11.2 

8.9 

4.5 

2.5 

.2 

.4 

.8 

3.0 

5.4 

11.2 

21.1 

32.8 

48.6 

61.4 

72.7 

83.9 

92.8 

97.3 

99.8 

100.0 

1 

7 

4 

10 

9 

27 

26 

25 

27 

29 

18 

14 

11 

8 

2 

.5 
3.1 

1.8 

4.6 

4.2 

12.5 

12.0 

11.5 

12.5 

13.3 

8.2 

6.2 

5.1 

3.6 

.9 

.5 

3.6 

5.4 

10.0 

41-45. . 

14.2 

46-50 

51-55 

26.7 
38.7 

56-60 

50.2 

61-65 

66-70 

71-75 

62.7 
76.0 
84.2 

76-80 

81-85 

90.4 
95.5 

86-90 

99.1 

91-95 

100.0 

Medians 

60. 

6  per  cen 

t 

61. 

7  per  cen 

t 

Table  compiled  from  statistics  collected  by  the  Survey. 


300 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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Statistical  Tables 


301 


TABLE  16 

Showing  the  percentages  that  each  age  group  is  of  the  average  size  of  age 
groups  for  ages  eight,  nine,  ten,  eleven 


AGE 


(Base) » 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

Over  20. 


White 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


5,000 


6,900 


12,000 


Colored 


Counties 


Cities 


1,600 


2,800 


13.4 
67.4 
96.2 

101.4 
99.8 

102.3 

97.9 

97.5 

89.9 

76.2 

57.8 

41.6 

22.3 

12.3 

4.7 

1.0 

.6 


28.0 

21.7 

73.7 

70.4 

94.2 

94.2 

100.6 

100.1 

102.8 

100.7 

102.4 

102.4 

93.3 

94.5 

89.5 

92.1 

80.4 

85.3 

61.4 

67.1 

43.9 

49.3 

32.5 

36.0 

16.9 

19.0 

7.0 

9.1 

2.1 

3.1 

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.2 

.4 

.6 
1 

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.4 

1 


11. 

53. 

95. 

99. 

101. 

106. 

90.0 

104.1 

88.4 

86.4 

62.8 

37.9 

14.5 

9.0 

2.9 

.4 

.1 


Total 


4,400 


19.3 

60.3 

90.7 

102.5 

101.0 

101.0 

96.5 

92.8 

81.1 

58.5 

38.1 

23.0 

11.0 

4.9 

1.2 

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.2 

16.5 

57.7 

92.6 

101.3 

101.1 

102.8 

94.1 

96.9 

83.8 

68.7 

47„1 

28.4 

12.2 

6.4 

1.8 

.3 

.2 


1  Figures  in  this  line  represent  the  approximate  average  size  of  age 
groups  for  children  in  school  of  ages  eight,  nine,  ten,  eleven.  Figures 
below  represent  the  percentages  that  the  various  age  groups  are  of 
that  approximate  average  in  each  case. 


302 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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Statistical  Tables 


303 


TABLE  18 

Shotting  for  eighteen  counties  and  all  cities  {except  Richmond)  the  per- 
centages that  the  numbers  of  pupils  remaining  in  school  for  various 
lengths  of  time  are  of  the  average  number  of  those  remaining  one,  two, 
three,  and  four  years  in  school. 


Length  of  Stay 

White 

Colored 

in  Years 

Counties 

Cities 

Counties 

Cities 

1,  2,  3,  4 

Nearly  one 

four  year 

103.7 

84.7 

70.7 

52.3 

37.4 

24.0 

13.9 

4.8 

3.0 

hundred  per 
s. 

103.6 
89.1 
71.9 
59.1 
38.2 
26.8 
14.8 
4.6 
.8 

cent  remain 

86.3 

69.0 

43.1 

29.4 

14.7 

7.5 

4.3 

1.5 

.8 

for  at  least 

5 

85.9 

6 

69.0 

7 

50.3 

8 

30.2 

9 

18.4 

10 

12.2 

11 

5.6 

12 

4.1 

Over  12 

6.6 

304 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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gures  are  relative  only,  being  s 
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Statistical  Tables 


305 


TABLE  20 

Showing  the  per  cent  that  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  grade  is  of  the 
approximate  average  number  of  pupils  of  ages  8,  9,  10,  11  in  eighteen 
counties  and  all  cities  of  Virginia  in  1918-19K 


White 

Colored 

GRADE 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

Base 

5,000 

6,900 

12,000 

1,600 

2,800 

4,400 

Kindergarten . 

Primary 

1 


2... 
3... 
4... 
5... 
6... 
7... 
82.. 
I... 
II.. 
III. 
IV. 


31.64 

229.14 

123.14 

128.06 

129.16 

106.20 

86.78 

69.62 

3.12 

31.58 

21.72 

13.90 

8.42 


14.73 

8.46 

12.70 

20.48 

150.42 

181.88 

110.41 

114.80 

114.91 

119.43 

115.16 

120.03 

113.41 

109.54 

86.99 

86.18 

69.13 

68.76 

11.77 

8.07 

54.70 

44.57 

36.24 

29.91 

23.42 

19.26 

19.77 

14.88 

28.44 

352.88 

167.44 

142.81 

124.25 

82.38 

41.94 

18.69 

.94 

3.19 

.75 


2.75 

12.21 

214.75 

148.48 

135.71 

121.89 

89.40 

57.82 

37.82 

7.36 

26.04 

14.43 

7.04 

3.00 

1.73 

18.11 

267.48 

155.36 

138.30 

122.75 

86.84 

52.05 

30.89 

5.02 

17.50 

9.45 

4.48 

1.91 


1  Percentages  above  100  in  grades  one  to  five  indicate  that  a  very 
large  number  of  pupils  have  failed  of  promotion  and  have  been  held 
back.  The  number  of  pupils  in  those  grades  is  always  much  larger 
than  the  size  of  any  entering  class. 

2  The  eighth  grade  is  a  regular  part  of  the  course  in  a  few  schools, 
notably  in  the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Harrisonburg. 


306 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  21 

Showing  the  median  ages  of  pupils  in  various  grades  of  different  types  of 
schools  in  eighteen  counties  and  all  cities  of  Virginia  in   1918-19 


GRADE 


Standard 


White 


Colored 


a 
o 


03 

■   — 

a 

bO 


s 

o 

o 
^--^ 

1   2 

<d  J- 

o  2 
o  u 


a 


o 


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o 

H 


a 

o 
o 

c  2 


c3 

•- 
3 
- 


O 


o 
O 

H 


1.. 
2.. 
3.. 
4.. 
5.. 
6.. 
7.. 
I.. 
II. 
Ill 
IV 


6.5 

7.5 

7.5 

8.5 

8.5 

9.5 

9.5 

10.5 

10.5 

11.5 

11.5 

12.5 

12.5 

13.5 

14.5 

14.5 

15.5 

15.5 

16.5 

16.5 

17.5 

17.5 

7.4 
9.0 
10.1 
11.4 
12.6 
13.6 
14.9 


7.3 

6.5 

8.8 

7.8 

10.0 

8.9 

11.1 

9.9 

12.3 

10.9 

13.2 

12.1 

14.5 

12.9 

14.9 

14.1 

15.8 

15.0 

16.5 

16.0 

17.4 

16.9 

8.2 

8.1 

10.5 

10.4 

12.0 

11.8 

13  1 

12.8 

14.2 

13.9 

15.0 

14.5 

15.1 

15.2 

16.1 

7.3 
8.9 
10.1 
11.0 
12.0 
13.0 
13.9 
14.5 
15.8 
16.6 
17.3 


Statistical  Tables 


307 


TABLE  22 

Showing  the  percentages  of  pupils  of  normal  age,  under  age,  and  over  age 
(one  year  span)  in  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties  and  all  cities  of 
Virginia,  1918-19,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard  (entrance  age 
seven)  and  the  national  standard  (entrance  age  six). 


County  schools 

City  schools 

STATUS  OF 
PUPILS 

S 
o 
o 
(-. 

a 
O 

a 

o 
o 
u 
1 

o 

S 
o 

.  2 

<B 
CD 

u 

M 
H 

S  n 
o  £ 

°  £ 
u  O 

r°  § 

Total 

county 

Under 
10,000pop- 
ulation 

Over  10,000 
popula- 
tion 

>> 

o 

< 

WHITE 

Total  number. .  . . 

12,607 

9,236 

4,736 

22,634 

49,213 

9,814 

54,525 

64,339 

Virg'a  standard: 

Over  age 

61.3 

63.7 

58.8 

52.0 

57.3 

42.6 

28.5 

30.6 

Of  normal  age. . 

20.9 

20.4 

23.7 

26.5 

23.6 

31.7 

30.5 

30.6 

Under  age 

17.8 

15.9 

17.5 

21.5 

19.1 

25.7 

41.0 

38.8 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Nat'l  standard: 

Over  age 

82.2 

83.9 

81.5 

73.5 

78.8 

69.6 

54.2 

56.7 

Of  normal  age.. 

14.4 

13.1 

15.0 

21.1 

16.9 

22.9 

31.2 

29.8 

Under  age 

3.4 

3.0 

3.5 

5.4 

4.3 

7.5 

14.6 

13.5 

COLORED 

Total  number. . . . 

8,533 

4,395 

1,147 

1,334 

19,409 

2,175 

22,458 

24,633 

Virg'a  standard: 

Over  age 

77.9 

89.5 

71.1 

74.7 

80.4 

62.3 

54.9 

55.5 

Of  normal  age.. 

13.8 

8.2 

17.9 

19.2 

13.0 

23.2 

23.6 

23.6 

Under  age 

8.3 

2.3 

11.0 

6.1 

6.6 

14.5 

21.5 

20.9 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Nat'l  standard: 

Over  age 

92.6 

97.7 

90.6 

93.8 

93.5 

85.0 

77.5 

78.2 

Of  normal  age.. 

7.0 

2.0 

7.6 

5.4 

5.4 

12.5 

15.8 

15.5 

Under  age 

1.4 

.3 

1.8 

.8 

1.1 

2.5 

6.7 

6.3 

308 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  22-B 

Showing  the  percentages  of  pupils  of  normal  age,  under  age,  and  over  age 
(two-year  span)  in  the  schools  of  eighteen  counties  and  all  cities  of 
Virginia  in  1918-19,  according  to  the  Virginia  standard  (entrance  age 
seven)  and  the  National  standard  (entrance  age  six). 


County  schools 

City  schools 

STATUS  OF 
PUPILS 

a 

o 
o 
u 
1 
CO 

a 
O 

a 

o 
o 
u 
1 

o 

a 

o 

-  2 

<0 
0> 

u 

si 

H 

DQ 

S  S5 

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3  a 

r°  § 

>> 

a 

9 

o 

o 

< 

i 

a 
o 
a  a 

^9,  2 

T3°~  03 

o 
o 
o    , 

O   03 

>> 

< 

WHITE 

Virg'a  standard: 

Over  age 

Of  normal  age.. 
Under  age 

41.5 
40.7 
17.8 

43.2 
41.0 
15.9 

36.2 
46.3 
17.5 

29.9 
48.6 
21.5 

36.0 
44.9 
19.1 

24.0 
50.3 
25.7 

12.0 
46.9 
41..  1 

13.9 
47.4 

38.7 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Nat'l  standard: 

Over  age 

Of  normal  age.. 
Under  age 

COLORED 

Virg'a  standard: 

Of  normal  age.. 
Under  age 

61.3 

35.3 

3.4 

61.9 

29.7 
8.4 

63.5 

33.5 

3.0 

73.9 

23.8 

2.3 

57.8 

38.8 

3.4 

50.4 
38.6 
11.0 

48.0 

46.6 

5.4 

55.0 

38.9 

6.1 

55.3 

40.4 

4.3 

63.9 

29.5 

6.6 

39.0 

53.5 

7.5 

41.4 
44.1 
14.5 

25.5 
59.9 
14.6 

33.7 
44.8 
21.5 

27.5 
59.0 
13.5 

34.4 
44.7 
20.9 

Total 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Nat'l  standard: 

Over  age 

Of  normal  age.. 
Under  age 

77.9 

20.7 

1.4 

89.5 

10.2 

.3 

72.8 

25.4 

1.8 

73.1 
26.1 

.8 

80.4 

18.5 

1.1 

61.4 

36.1 

2.5 

52.9 

40.4 

6.7 

53.7 

40.0 

6.3 

Cf.  note  at  close  of  Chapter  IV,  and  see  Table  22. 


Statistical  Tables 


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TABLE  38 

Showing  the  approximate  per  cent  of  schools  of  various  types  whose 
programs  show  no  special  provision  for  certain  subjects  set  by  the  State 
Course  of  Study. 


SUBJECT 


One  room, 
per  cent 


Two  or  three 

rooms,  per 

cent 


Four  rooms 

and  over,  per 

cent 


Writing 

Hygiene 

Music 

Drawing 

Nature  Study. 
Agriculture. . . 


20 
40 
80 
60 
84 
94 


0 
6 

77 
52 
81 
84 


0 

0 
60 
35 
50 
80 


Cooking,  sewing,  gardening,  and  manual  training  are  rarely  found  in 
the  non-city  white  schools. 


326 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  39 

Showing  the  recitation  time  allotment  in  non-city  white  schools  for  grades 
one,  five,  and  seven.  Figures  represent  the  median  allotment  in  minutes 
per  school  day  for  the  total  recitation  time  of  pupils  in  each  of  these 
grades.    The  average  length  of  the  school  day  in  minutes  is  330. 


One 
room 


Two 
rooms 


Three 
rooms 


Four 
rooms 


Five  to 
seven 
rooms 


Grade  1 { 

Grade  5 < 

Grade  7 


55 
20    135 

90 

50    151 

95 

57    135 


95 

35    150 

113 

87    187 

124 

90    185 


103 

76    200 

140 

92    205 

161 

70    230 


111 

64     150 

170 

115    270 

176 

130    235 


170 

77    270 

210 

165    281 

217 

153    295 


Bold  face  figures  in  the  upper  centre  of  each  space  represent  medians ; 
figures  in  lower  left  corners  represent  the  minimum  found;  figures  in 
the  lower  right  corners  represent  the  maximum  found. 


Statistical  Tables 


327 


TABLE  40 

Showing  for  non-city  schools  of  various  types  the  percentages  of  schools 
having  various  time  allotments  per  week  in  arithmetic,  grades  one,  five, 
seven. 


MINUTES 
PER  WEEK 

One 

room, 

per  cent 

Two 

rooms, 

per  cent 

Three 

rooms, 

per  cent 

Four 

rooms, 

per  cent 

Five  to 

seven 

rooms, 

per  cent 

Grade  1 : 
Less  than  25. . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150  and  over. . 
Grade  5 : 
Less  than  25. . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150  and  over. . 
Grade  7 : 
Less  than  25.  . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150  and  over. . . . 

8 
12 
43 
23 
14 

0 

0 
2 
13 
55 
20 
10 

0 

4 

9 

50 

23 

14 

0 
0 
12 
33 
44 
11 

0 
0 
6 
6 
67 
21 

0 

0 

4 

12 

42 

42 

0 

0 

4 

34 

46 

16 

0 

0 

0 

11 

56 

33 

0 
0 
0 
0 
24 
76 

0 

0 

9 

33 

37 

21 

0 
0 
0 
0 
30 
70 

0 
0 
0 
0 
13 
87 

0 
0 
0 
0 
49 
51 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
100 

0 
0 
0 
0 
13 
87 

328 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  50 

(Tables  J^l-lfi  are  incorporated  in  the  text  of  Chapter  VI.) 
Showing  for  the  State  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher;  (a)  of  the  total 
school  population,    (b)  of  the  school  enrolment,    (c)  of  the  number  in 
average  daily  attendance. 


Pupils  per  teacher  on  the  basis  of 

School  population 

School  enrolment 

Average  daily 
attendance 

School 

Year 

T3 

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w 

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1909-10. . . 

50 

91 

59 

35 

50 

29 

23 

31 

25 

1914-15... 

44 

84 

53 

35 

49 

39 

24 

31 

25 

1915-16... 

42 

79 

50 

34 

48 

37 

24 

32 

26 

1916-17. .. 

33 
32 

48 
45 

37 
35 

23 
22 

30 
29 

25 

1917-18... 

23 

Table  compiled  from  figures  given  in  the  Reports  of  the  (Virginia) 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1916-17  and  1917-18,  pages  147- 
149  of  the  Report  for  1916-17. 


Statistical  Tables 


329 


TABLE  51 

Comparing  the  Virginia  record  with  the  National  record  and  with  records 
in  various  sections  of  the  country  for  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher 
in  1915-16:  (a)  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  of  ages  five  to 
eighteen  in  the  population,  (b)  on  the  basis  of  school  enrolment,  (c)  on 
the  basis  of  average  daily  attendance. 


RECORDS 


Pupils  per  teacher  on  the  basis  of 


Children  of 
ages  5-18 


Pupils 
enrolled 


Average  daily 
attendance 


Virginia 

The  United  States 

North  Atlantic  States. . 
North  Central  States. . , 
South  Atlantic  States.  . 
South  Central  States. . . 
Western  States 


51 
43 
44 
35 
53 
56 
33 


37 
33 
32 

28 
40 
42 
28 


26 
25 
26 
22 
28 
28 
22 


Table  compiled  from  figures  given  in  Report  of  the  (U.  S.)  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  1917,  pp.  68,  73,  76. 


330 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  52 

Showing  for  1917-18  in  Virginia  the  number  of  counties  hawing  various 
records  J or  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher:  (a)  on  the  basis  of  school 
population,  (b)  on  the  basis  of  school  enrolment,  (c)  on  the  basis  of 
average  daily  attendance. 


PUPILS  PER 
TEACHER 

On  the  basis  of 

school 

population 

On  the  basis  of 

pupils 

enrolled 

On  the  basis  of 

average  daily 

attendance 

White 

Colored 

White 

Colored 

White 

Colored 

11-  15 

23 

48 

19 

8 

1 

3 

16-  20 

6 

24 

34 

17 

10 

4 

2 

2 

1 

3 

5 

13 

26 
22 
9 
6 
5 
3 
2 

21 

21-25 

26-30 

5 

14 

20 

24 

12 

14 

5 

1 

4 

2 
2 
6 
4 
6 
5 
7 
14 
7 
7 
6 
6 
5 
3 
7 
5 
4 
1 

35 
22 

31-35 

36-40 

10 

41-  45 

1 

4 

46-50 

51-  55 

1 

56-  60. . 

61-65 

66-  70. .. 

1 

71-  75. . 

1 

76-  80 

1 

81-  85. . 

86-  90. . 

1 

91-  95.. 

96-100. . 

1 

101-125.. 

126-150 

151-175. . 

176-200.. 

Table  compiled  from  records  of  the  State  Department  of  Education 
No  colored  schools  in  Buchanan,  Craig,  and  Dickenson  Counties. 


Statistical  Tables 


331 


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332 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  54 

Showing  the  decrease  in  the  number  and  proportion  of  men  teachers  in 

Virginia  from  1871  to  1918 


White 

Colored 

Total 

YEAR 

Number 

Per 

cent 

Number 

Per 
cent 

Number 

Per 
cent 

1871 

1,616 
2,478 
2,189 
1,974 
1,527 
1,629 
1,372 

64.1 
60.8 
39.4 
29.2 
19.0 
15.1 
12.3 

325 
531 
964 
842 
535 
455 
415 

67.4 
67.6 
46.6 
35.2 
22.4 
15.3 
14.2 

1,941 
3,009 
3,153 
2,816 
2,062 
2,084 
1,787 

64  6 

1880 

1890 

61.9 
41  5 

1900 

30  8 

1910 

1917 

20.0 
15  2 

1918 

12  9 

Table  compiled  from  figures  given  in  the  Reports  of  the  (Virginia) 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1916-17,  p.  149,  and  1917-18,  p.  84. 


Statistical  Tables 


333 


TABLE  55 

Showing  the  proportions  of  teachers  (in  percentages)  having  had  various 
terms  of  teaching  experience  before  this  year  (1918-19)  in  non-city 
schools. 


Experience 

County  schools 
of  all  types 

One-room 
schools 

High 
schools 

in  Years 

White 

Colored 

White 

Colored 

White 
only 

0 

22.3 

16.4 

10.4 

8.3 

7.3 

6.3 

14.1 

6.0 

8.9 

20.1 

11.0 
7.9 
5.4 
5.4 
6.5 

18.6 
6.5 

18.6 

35.9 
15.3 
9.3 
6.5 
6.0 
5.6 
10.0 
4.4 
7.0 

22.9 

10.9 
8.3 
4.7 
6.3 
7.4 

15.6 
7.3 

16.6 

15.8 

1 

11.2 

2 

8.3 

3 

7.5 

4 

4.1 

5 

4.7 

6-10 

22.6 

11-15 

6.8 

Over  15 

18.5 

Total  number. 

1,461 

354 

432 

192 

295 

Median 
experience, 
years 

1.4 

4.0 

.9 

3.5 

4.6 

Table  compiled  from  selected  returns. 


334 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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Statistical  Tables 


335 


TABLE  57 

Showing  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  entire  State  according  to  the  figures 
given  on  page  97  of  the  1917-18  Report  of  the  (Virginia)  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction.  Figures  for  the  number  and  per  cent  of  teachers 
having  had  various  kinds  of  education  and  professional  training. 


EDUCATION  AND  TRAINING 


Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 


Graduates  of  State  Normal  Schools  (white) 

Graduates  of  Univ.  Va.,  V.  M.  I.,  V.  P.  I 
(white) 

Graduates  of  Petersburg  Normal  and  Hamp- 
ton (colored) 

Graduates   of   other   Virginia   colleges   and 
normals 

Graduates    of    out-of-State    colleges    and 
normals 

Not   graduates   but   attending   college   one 
year  or  more 

Normal  training  departments  in  high  schools 

Four  years  of  high  school  or  less 

Total 


1,811 

13.0 

191 

1.4 

824 

5.9 

1,152 

8.3 

554 

3.9 

1,230 

918 

7,224 

8.9 

6.6 

52.0 

13,904 

100.0 

13.0 
14.4 
20.3 
28.6 
32.5 

41.4 

48.0 
100.0 


100.0 


336 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  58 

Showing  for  1918-19  the  relative  numbers  and  percentages  of  white  non- 
city  high-school  teachers  in  eighteen  counties  of  Virginia  having  various 
amounts  of  education  and  training. 


EDUCATION  AND 
TRAINING 


Less  than  High  school  I . 

High  School  I 

High  School  II 

High  School  III 

High  School  IV 

College  1 

College  2 

College  3 

College  4 

Normal  School  1 

Normal  School  2 

Normal  School  3 


Number 


Men 


Women 


Total 


Per 
cent 


Total 

Median  years  of  educati 


2 
1 
1 

21 
6 

31 
1 
5 


68 


on  abov 


32 

8 
33 

8 
41 

6 
64 

1 


197 


e  the  ele 


3 

2 

33 

9 

54 
14 
72 

7 
69 

1 


265 


mentary 


.4 

.0 

1.1 

.7 

12.5 

3.4 

20.4 

5.3 

27.2 

2.6 

26.0 

.4 


100.0 


school, 


Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 


.4 

.4 

1.5 

2.2 

14.7 

18.1 

38.5 

43.8 

71.0 

73.6 

99.6 

100.0 


100.0 


5.63 


Statistical  Tables 


337 


TABLE  59 

Showing  the  average  annual  salaries  of  teachers  in  Virginia  from  1913 

to  1918 


White 

Colored 

White  and  colored 

School 
Year 

BO 

a 

'•3 
a 

3 
o 

O 

n 

'-3 
O 

0) 
03 

-1-3 

02 

OB 

CO 

a 
3 
o 

O 

CO 

'3 

o 

09 

S3 
+3 
02 

m 

9 

a 

O 

CO 

a 

o 

03 
02 

1913-14... 
1914-15... 
1915-16... 
1916-17... 
1917-18. . . 

$293 
308 
315 
333 
351 

$662 
665 
672 
650 
658 

$352 
368 
379 
397 
423 

$148 
158 
161 
169 
175 

$395 
399 
392 
396 
391 

$189 
200 
206 
216 
241 

$262 
276 
283 
299 
315 

$603 
600 
608 
594 
673 

$317 
332 
342 
358 
385 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Reports  of  the   (Virginia) 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 


TABLE  60 

Comparing  teachers'  salaries  in  Virginia  with  those  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  1915-16 


Average 

monthly 

salary 

Average 

number 

months  in 

school  term 

Average 
annual 
salary 

Virginia 

$48.50 
70.21 
80.15 
68.14 
50.65 
61.18 
95.05 

7.05 
8.02 
9.09 
8.36 
6.76 
6.76 
8.39 

$341.90 

United  States 

563.08 

North  Atlantic  States. . . . 

North  Central  States 

South  Atlantic  States .... 

South  Central  States 

Western  States 

728.56 
569.65 
342.39 
413.58 
797.47 

Rank  of  Virginia 

43 

37 

42 

Table  compiled  from  figures  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education,  1917,  Vol.  II,  p.  77. 


338 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  61 

Showing  for  1917-18  the  number  of  counties  having  various  records  for  the 
average  annual  salaries  of  teachers 


225. 
250. 


151-  175. 
176-  200. 
201- 
226- 
251-  275. 
276-  300. 
301-  325. 
326-  350. 
351-  375. 
376-  400. 
401-  425. 
426-  450. 
451-  475. 
476-  500. 
501-  525. 
526-  550. 
551-  575. 
576-  600. 


Average . 
Median. 


SALARY 


Under  $100. 
$100-1126.. 

126-  150. . 


White 


3 
6 
9 
8 
15 
10 
15 
9 
4 
4 
6 
3 
5 
1 
1 
1 


$348.94 


$348.76 


Colored 


1 

6 

19 

24 

19 

13 

8 

1 

1 

3 


$182.94 


$177.48 


Table  compiled  from  the  Report  of  the  (Virginia)  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  pp.  83-84. 
Average  length  of  term  in  white  schools,  7.2  months. 
Average  monthly  salary  in  white  schools,  $48.46. 
Average  length  of  term  in  colored  schools,  6.1  months. 
Average  monthly  salary  in  colored  schools,  $29.99. 


Statistical  Tables 


339 


TABLE  62 

Showing  for  1918-19  the  relative  number  of  elementary-school  teachers 
contracted  with  for  the  annual  salaries  indicated 


Counties 

Cit 

ies 

ANNUAL  SALARY 

White 

Colored 

White 

Colored 

Under    $150 

$    150-$    199 

1 
14 

186 

188 

178 

313 

229 

198 

160 

67 

29 

16 

2 

4 

4 

3 

4 

8 

4 

10 

8 

19 

95 

97 

110 

146 

96 

92 

80 

164 

68 

174 

28 

75 

13 

18 

12 

11 

2 

40 

161 

99 

52 

20 

19 

10 

4 

1 

1 

7 

200-     249.    . 

1 

250-      299 

11 

300-      349. . . 

60 

350-      399. . . 

28 

400-      449. . . 

87 

450-      499. . 

109 

500-      549. .  . 

95 

550-      599. .  . 

28 

600-      649. . 

38 

650-      699. 

12 

700-      749. 

7 

750-      799 

1 
1 

800-      849. .  . 

3 

850-      899. . 

1 

900-      949 

3 

950-      999 

1  000-  1  049 

1 

1  050-  1  099 

1,100-  1,149. 

1 

1  150-  1  199 

1  200-  1  249 

1  250-  1  299 

1  350-  1  399 

4 

1  450-  1  499 

1 
31 

1  500-  2  000 

Total 

1,593 

409 

1,373 

488 

Table  compiled  from  figures  on  State  Department  Form  S.  No.  4  for 
schools  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Among  the  county  teachers  considered 
were  74  men  and  1,519  women. 


340 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  63 

Shouting  for  1918-19  the  relative  number  of  high-school  teachers    (white 
only)  contracted  with  for  the  annual  salaries  indicated 


Counties 

Cities 

ANNUAL  SALARY 

Men 

Women 

Men 

Women 

$    250-$    299 

1 

300-     349. . . 

1 

350-     399. . . 

5 
11 
18 
31 
35 
41 
29 
18 

6 
10 

9 

400-      449 

2 

450-      499 

1 
3 

1 

1 

500-      549. .  . 

7 

550-      599 

19 

600-      649 

5 
2 
1 
2 
5 
6 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
2 
5 
4 

1 

48 

650-      699. . . 

29 

700-      749 

17 

750-     799 

19 

800-      849. . . 

1 

35 

850-      899 

18 

900-      949 

1 

3 
2 
3 
6 

48 

950-      999. . . 

46 

1,000-  1,049... 

18 

1,050-  1,099... 

1 

33 

1,100-  1,149 

20 

1,150-  1,199 

3 

3 

8 

2 

10 

4 

5 

14 

11 

14 

1,200-  1,249... 

7 

1,250-  1,299..  . 

16 

1,300-  1,349 

1 

1,350-  1,399... 

6 

1 

4 

13 

1,400-  1,449..  . 

1 

1,450-  1,499... 

1.500-  2,000... 

1 

Over    2,000 

2 

Total 

76 

206 

78 

410 

Table  compiled  from  figures  on  the  State  Department  Form  S.  No.  4, 
for  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 


Statistical  Tables 


341 


TABLE  64 

Showing  the  enrolments  for  the  regular  session  of  1917-18  in  the 
State  Normal  Schools. 


M 

a 

SO 

X* 

3 

4) 

a 

^2 

a 
o 

T3 

> 

0) 

33 

o 

i~4 

s 

-3 

sa 

S3 

+3 

cS 

M 

03 

03 

o 

fc 

Pt, 

a 

tf 

H 

416 

126 

241 

252 

1,035 

High-School  Pupils 

207 

124 

35 

104 

470 

Total     

623 

250 

276 

356 

1,505 

TABLE  65 

Graduates  of  the  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women  1914-18. 


NORMAL  SCHOOL 

Teaching 
1918-19 

Not 

Teaching 

1918-19 

Total 

Farmville 

Fredericksburg 

552 
168 
209 
122 

163 
36 

117 
15 

715 
204 

Harrisonburg 

Radford 

326 
137 

Total 

1,051 

331 

1,382 

342 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  66 

Showing  the  relative  amount  of  time  devoted  to  work  in  the  high  school 
and  normal  professional  departments  of  the  four  State  Normal  Schools 
for  Women,  1918-19.* 


Number  of  minutes  devoted 
per  week  to  instruction  in 

Per  cent  of 
time  devoted 

NORMAL 
SCHOOL 

Normal 
depart- 
ment. 

High 

school 
depart- 
ment 

Both 

depart- 
ments 

to  work  in  the 
normal  profes- 
sional de- 
partment 

Farmville 

15,270 
6,215 
9,423 
8,195 

6,630 

8,188 

400 

5,018 

21,900 

14,398 

9,823 

13,213 

69.7 

Fredericksburg 

Harrisonburg 

Radford 

43.2 
95.9 
62.0 

Total 

39,103 

20,231 

59,334 

65.9 

Instruction  in  classroom  only  considered  here. 


Statistical  Tables 


343 


TABLE  67 

Showing  the  amount  of  observation  and  practice  teaching  by  graduates  of 
the  class  of  1918  in  the  four  State  Normal  Schools  for  Women.  Figures 
in  terms  of  the  number  of  graduates  having  observed  and  having  taught 
various  numbers  of  recitations,  (c) 


Observation 

Practice  teaching 

si 

si 

NUMBER  01 

7 

u 

3 

M 

3 

bC 

RECITATIONS   I 

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m 
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0 

3 

3 

6 

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51-75 

21 
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8 

21 

101-125 

8 

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16 

10 

45 

71 

126-150 

19 

11 

2    .. 

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40 

20 

60 

151-175 

7 

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17 

5 

22 

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26 

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35 

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Over  300 

Total 

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5   265 

104a 

466 

70 

45 

265 

a    Records  not  reported  for  60  graduates. 

6     Five  graduates  trained  in  the  institutional  household  arts  course 
not  included  here. 
c    As  reported  by  the  presidents  or  registrars  of  the  schools, 


344 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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345 


TABLE  69 

Showing  the  education  and  training  of  instructors  in  the  four 
State  Normal  Schools  for  Women,  1918-19 


NORMAL  SCHOOL 


Farmville 

Fredericksburg 
Harrisonburg.  . 
Radford 

Total 


^_^ 

Number  of 

College 

c3 

■ 

instructors 

degrees 

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O 

= 

m 

■?-,  « 

c 

72  *= 

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2 

8 

6 

8 

13 

7 

15 

22 

6 

4 

2 

10 

4 

15 

19 

2 

3 

3 

7 

4 

6 

15 

21 

3 

3 

3 

12 

22 

77 

99 

4 

20 

16 

20 

39 

27 

8 

11 

12 


58 


a  This  column  includes  only  those  not  having  other  degrees. 
Practically  all  instructors  have  had  some  professional  training  either 
in  normal  schools  or  at  special  institutions  providing  for  professional 
training . 


346 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  70 

Showing  the  leaching  experience  of  instructors  in  the  four  State 


Normal  Schools  for  Women 

1918-19 

"o 

o 

o 

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eS 

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Normal  school 

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Experience  in 

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03 

a 

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Normal  School 

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12 
5 

1 
2 

12 
2 
5 
1 

7 
4 

19 
4 
2 
1 
3 

7 
2 

3 

6-10.. 

2 

11-15 

16-20 

1 

Over  20 

Total 

20 

9 
1 

20 

7 
3 

1 

11 

5 
3 
2 

29 

12 
4 

9 

3 
1 

6 

Fredericksburg 
Normal  School 

1-5 

6-10 

1 
3 

11-15 

Total 

10 

4 
2 

1 

11 

8 
1 

10 

2 
2 
1 

16 

7 
6 
1 
1 

4 

1 

4 

Harrisonburg 
Normal  School 

1-  5 

7 

6-11 

2 

11-15 

16-20. . 

1 

Total 

7 

2 
1 

9 

6 

1 
2 

5 

5 
1 
1 

15 

10 
7 
1 

1 
1 

10 

Radford 
Normal  School 

1-5 

1 

6-10 

2 

11-16.. 

16-20. . 

Over  20  . 

1 

1 

Total 

4 

9 

7 

18 

1 

3 

Grand  Total.. 

41 

49 

33 

78 

15 

23 

Statistical  Tables 


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348 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  72 

Showing  the  relative  numbers  and  percentages  of  Virginia  teachers  holding 
certificates  of  various  kinds  in  1918-19 


Number 

Per  cent 

Certificates 

White 

Colored 

Total 

White 

Colored 

Total 

Collegiate 

Professional... 

Collegiate 

Normal 

Professional... 
Elementary 

Professional... 
Special 

18 
106 

197 

333 
168 
253 
171 

168 

1 

4 

24 

254 
25 
178 
232 
207 

19 
110 

221 

587 
193 
431 
403 
375 

1.3 
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13.9 

23.5 
11.9 
17.9 
12.1 
11.9 

.1 

.4 

2.6 

27.5 

2.7 
19.2 
25.1 
22.4 

.8 
4.7 

9.5 

25.1 

8.5 

First  Grade 

Second  Grade. . . 
Local  Permit 

18.4 
17.2 
16.0 

Totals 

1,414 

925 

2,339 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Table  compiled  from  a  random  selection  of  more  than  ten  per  cent 
of  all  white  teachers  and  more  than  twenty  per  cent  of  all  colored 
teachers.  The  fact  that  the  certificate  system  is  changing  and  that 
the  revaluation  of  certificates  is  not  complete  prevents  us  from  using 
complete  figures.  For  proportions,  however,  the  figures  given  are  just 
as  accurate  a  measure  of  teachers'  qualifications  as  the  complete 
statistics  would  give. 


Statistical  Tables 


349 


TABLE  73 

Showing  the  number  of  counties  with  various  percentages  of  their  teachers 
holding  "professional"  certificates  in  1917-18 


Per  Cent  of  Teachers  Holding 
Professional  Certificates 

Number  of 
counties 

0 

1 

1-10 

6 

11-20 

12 

21-30 

12 

31-40 

18 

41-50 

11 

51-60 

22 

61-70 

6 

71-80 

7 

81-91 

5 

Table  compiled  from  figures  given  on  page  93  of  the  Report  of  the 
(Virginia)  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18. 


TABLE  74 

Showing  the  distribution  of  certificates  for  all  teachers  in  Virginia  in 
1917-18,  according  to  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction. 


KIND  OF  CERTIFICATE 


White, 
per 
cent 


Colored, 
per 
cent 


Total, 
per 
cent 


Higher  than  first  grade 

First  grade 

Second  grade 

Third  grade  and  local  permits 


49.2 

31.2 

13.4 

6.2 


33.4 
26.4 
18.2 
22.0 


45.8 

30.1 

14.4 

9.7 


Table  compiled  from  figures  given  on  page  92  of  the  Report  of  the 
(Virginia)  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 


350 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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352 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  77 

Showing  the  ratio  of  high  school  enrolments  in  Virginia  to  high  school 
enrolments  in  the  United  States,  1916 


GO 

03 

CO 

•-«   sj 

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co 

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> 

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CO 

fc 

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1.29 

1.69 

1.01 

32 

Per     cent,     of     school     enrolment 

5.53 

7.49 

4.13 

34 

Per  cent,  of  high  school  pupils  in 

82.93 

87.32 

80.33 

35 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  on  page  23  of  the  Report  of  the 
(U.  S.)  Commissioner  of  Education,  1917. 


TABLE  78 

Showing  the  number  of  schools  of  various  grades  offering  high  school 

work  in  1917-18 


SCHOOLS 
LOCATED  IN 

First-grade 
(four-year) 
schools. 

Second-grade 
(three-year) 
schools. 

Third-grade 

(two-year) 
schools. 

All  others  giving 
high  school 
work. 

"3 

+3 

o 

Counties 

Cities 

204 
23 

176 

8 

160 
4 

27 
3 

627 
38 

Totals 

227 

184 

164 

30 

665 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Report  of  the   (Virginia) 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  pp.  81-82. 


Statistical  Tables 


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The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  82 
Showing  the  sex  balance  on  high  school  classes,  1917-18 


SEX 


Per  cent 


Grade 
I 


Grade 
II 


Grade 
III 


Grade 
IV 


All 


Counties — Boys 
Girls 

Cities — Boys 

Girls... 

Total— Boys. . 
Girls.. 


43.4 

40.4 

36.2 

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56.6 

59.6 

63.8 

64.6 

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61.0 

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58.0 

60.8 

64.4 

65.0 

40.5 
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63.0 


39.2 
60.8 


TABLE  83 

Showing  the  education  and  training  of  high  school  teachers,  1916-17 


Number  i       Per  cent 

At  least  two  years  of  college  work 

933 
200 
381 

61.6 

Normal  school  work 

13.2 

All  others 

25.2 

Total 

1,514 

100.0 

Table   compiled  from  data  given  in   Fifth  Annual   Report   of   the 
Public  High  Schools  of  Virginia  for  the  School  Year  1916-17,  pp.  21-22. 


Statistical  Tables 


357 


TABLE  84 

Showing  the  sources  of  Virginia's  supply  of  high  school  teachers  who  have 
had  at  least  two  years  of  college  education.     Figures  for  1916-17 


Number 

Per  cent 

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Virginia  private  colleges 

Out-of-State  colleges 

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306 
129 
160 

34 
99 
13 
79 

147 
405 
142 
239 

16.0 
43.2 

18.2 
22.6 

15.1 

44.0 

5.8 

35.1 

15.8 
43.4 
15.2 
25.6 

Total 

708 

225 

933 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Table   compiled  from  data  given  in  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Public  High  Schools  of  Virginia  for  the  School  Year  1916-17,  pp.  17-20. 


TABLE  85 

Showing  the  amounts  of  education  and  training  received  by  265  white 
high  school  teachers  in  Virginia.     Figures  for  1918-19 


HIGHEST  GRADE  OF 
EDUCATION  RECEIVED 


Number 


Per  cent 


Cumulative 
per  cent 


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First  grade  of  high  school. . . 
Second  grade  of  high  school. 
Third  grade  of  high  school. . 
Fourth  grade  of  high  school. 

Normal  school  1 

Normal  school  2 

Normal  school  3 

College  1 

College  2 

College  3 

College  4 


Total. 


1 


3 

2 

33 

7 

69 

1 

9 

54 

14 

72 

265 


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12.5 

2.6 

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100.0 


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43. 
47. 
67. 
72.8 
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358 


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Statistical  Tables  361 

TABLE  88 

Showing  for  sixteen  cities  and  two  towns  of  Virginia  the  industries 
engaging  fifty  or  more  skilled  and  semi-skilled  workers  each  in  19191. 

Alexandria — Carpenters,  108 — 83;  painters,  47 — 37;  railroad  shops, 
129 — 45 ;  ship  yards,  540 — 1422 ;  total  skilled  and  semi-skilled  workers, 
1,063—1,686. 

Bristol — Carpenters,  31 — 24;  clothing  industries,  40 — 90;  lumber  and 
furniture,  230 — 92;  textile  industries,  0 — 120;  leather  trades,  170 — 
30;  paper  industries,  120 — 50. 

Charlottesville — Textile  industries,  115 — 110;  carpenters,  46 — 36. 

Clifton  Forge — Railroad  shops,  384 — 220. 

Danville — Carpenters,  89 — 68;  painters,  39 — 29;  clothing  industries, 
40 — 80;  lumber  and  furniture,  53 — 22;  textile  industries,  2,585 — 1,335; 
tobacco  industries,  182 — 23. 

Fredericksburg — Clothing  industries,  99 — 116;  textile  industries,  22 — 40; 
leather  trades,  36 — 14. 

Hampton — Carpenters,  39 — 30;  printing  and  engraving,  43 — 20;  ship 
yards,  280—330. 

Harrisonburg — Clothing  industries,  20 — 30;  leather  industries,  16 — 100. 

Lynchburg — Carpenters,  145 — 112;  painters,  70 — 52;  builders  and  con- 
tractors, 42 — 33;  bricklayers  and  stonemasons,  29 — 23;  metal  in- 
dustries, 257 — 140 ;  clothing  industries,  42 — 748 ;  lumber  and  furniture 
225 — 89;  textile  industries,  50—440;  leather  industries,  1,138—327; 
printing  and  engraving,  92 — 23;  (peanut  and)  candy  products,  62 — 
24;  paper  products,  25 — 33. 

Newport  News — Carpenters,  89 — 68;  painters,  30 — 29;  lumber  and  fur- 
niture, 80— 110;  railroad  shops,  250—200;  ship  yards,  3,700—3,250; 
automobile  repairs,  32 — 33. 

Norfolk — Carpenters,  559 — 428;  painters,  258 — 198;  plasterers,  73 — 56; 
builders  and  contractors,  161 — 123 ;  bricklayers  and  stonemasons, 
100 — 76;  sheet  metal  workers,  50 — 28;  metal  trades,  284 — 15;  lumber 
and  furniture,  112 — 138;  textile  industries,  16 — 393;  printing  and 
engraving,  170 — 10;  ship  yards,  728 — 275;  automobile  repairs,  210 — 
47;  plumbing,  87 — 67;  electric  trades,  88 — 67. 

Petersburg — Carpenters,  127 — 98;  painters,  61 — 45;  builders  and  con- 
tractors, 37 — 29;  metal  industries,  31 — 20;  lumber  and  furniture, 
457 — 464;  tobacco  industries,  0 — 275;  automobile  repairs,  36 — 18. 

Portsmouth — Carpenters,  327 — 250;  painters,  131 — 100;  builders  and 
contractors,  53 — 40 ;  metal  industries,  91 — 83 ;  lumber  and  furniture, 
63 — 54;  textile  industries,  140 — 1,252;  railroad  shops,  475 — 252;  ship 
yards,  3,629 — 875;  plumbing,  33 — 25;  electrical  trades,  33 — 25. 

Pulaski — Metal  industries,  39 — 70;  railroad  shops,  100 — 25;  paint 
products,  60—80. 

Roanoke — Carpenters,  235 — 180 ;  painters,  92 — 71 ;  builders  and  con- 
tractors, 61—46;  bricklayers  and  stonemasons,  47 — 33;  metal  in- 
dustries, 179 — 240;  clothing  industries,  11 — 121;  textile  industries, 
38 — 318;  printing  and  engraving,  132 — 19;  railroad  shops,  2,677 — 441; 
automobile  repairs,  57 — 30. 

Salem — Metal  industries,  80 — 24;  clothing  industries,  24 — 68;  leather 
industries,  6 — 56;  glass  industries,  60 — 40. 

Staunton — Carpenters,  39 — 30 ;  clothing  industries,  68 — 126 ;  lumber  and 
furniture,  52 — 50. 

Suffolk — Carpenters,  54 — 41 ;  metal  industries,  36 — 40 ;  lumber  and  fur- 
niture, 66—12;  textile  industries,  13 — 285. 

1    Figures  must  be  considered  approximate  only. 


362 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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364 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  '91 

Shovring    the    percentages    of   non-city    school    buildings    receiving 

various  ratings  for  different  characteristics.    Number  of 

non-city  white  schools  considered  407,  number  of 

non-city  colored  schools  considered  167 


RATINGS  GIVEN 


White 
Schools  (407) 

Colored 
Schools  (167) 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 


Adequacy    of    window 

space 

Arrangement  of  windows 

Arrangement  of  seats 

Window  shades 

Heating 

Ventilation 

Water  supply 

Toilet  facilities 

Condition  of  toilets 


49 
12 
16. 

8. 
12. 

7, 
14. 

8. 

3. 


8.6 
28.0 
24.6 
15.0 
20.6 
15.7 
25.1 
28.2 
21.6 


19 
25 
32 
17 
38 
29 
35 
30 
28 


6.1 
23.6 
18.9 
21.1 
27.8 
31.2 
19.4 
22.1 
29.0 


19.2 
11.1 

8,1 

38.3 

.7 

16.5 

5.6 
10.6 
18.0 


16 
1 
2 
1 
9 
1 
5 
6 
1. 


3.6 
12.6 

12.2 

7.8 

4.2 

1.8 

19.8 

14.4 

12.6 


25 
9 
30 
12 
23 
15. 
39. 
27. 
29 


4.8 
40.7 
25.0 
20.4 
55.7 
54.5 
29.9 
26.9 
23.9 


49.0 
36.5 
30.4 
58.6 

6.6 
26.9 

5.4 
25.2 
31.8 


Space  is  not  here  available  to  present  details  concerning  the 
basis  of  rating  employed  above.  Definite  and  fixed  standards 
were  employed  in  each  case,  with  proper  regard  for  accepted 
standards  where  they  exist,  e.g.,  for  adequacy  of  window  space, 
arrangement  of  windows,  etc.  Ten  different  investigators  were 
employed  after  a  period  of  training  in  using  the  standards  and, 
after  a  measure  of  uniformity  had  been  assured  through  the  rating 
of  several  buildings  by  the  staff  independently  before  the  regular 
field  work  was  begun.  The  amount  of  variability  in  rating  was 
reduced  to  a  negligible  quantity  before  the  regular  field  work  was 
begun. 

In  general  the  ratings  employed  may  be  interpreted  loosely  as 
follows : 

A — Meeting  standard  requirements  in  every  essential  par- 
ticular ; 

B — Falling   below   standards   somewhat   but   still   distinctly 
above  merely  acceptable  conditions; 

C — Below  standard  but  still  acceptable ; 

D — Seriously  defective  conditions  approaching  the  intolerable 

E — Totally  unacceptable  and  intolerable. 


Statistical  Tables 


365 


TABLE  92 

Showing  the  percentages  of  one-room  school  buildings  receiving 
various  ratings  for  different  characteristics.  Number  of  white 
school  buildings,  162,  number  oj  colored  school  buildings,  112. 


RATINGS  GIVEN 


White 
schools  (162) 


Colored 

schools  (112) 


B 


D      E 


B 


D 


E 


Adequacy  of  window 

space |24 

Arrangement  of  windows  1 
Arrangement  of  seats.. 

Window  shades 

Heating 

Ventilation 

Water  supply 

Toilet  facilities 

Condition  of  toilets 


12 
3 
5 

2 

0 
1 


1    5.026 

7  10.513 
3  14.234. 
1  9.9|  7 
014.235 
6'  8.621. 
5  19.148. 
227.230 

8  21.031 


51  8.036.4 
0  43.221.6 
0  25.314.2 
416.663.0 
2  45.0  .6 
645.723.5 
8  20.4'  9.2 
319.1  17.2 
5  23.522.2 


9.8 

.9 
2.0 

.0 
8.9 

.9 
4.5 
7.2 

.9 


3.625.913.447.3 
4.5  4.542.847.3 
8.031.0,23.036.0 
4.510.815.269.5 
3.621.462.5:  3.6 
861.6!27.7 
8  38.41  6.2 


.0 
16.1 
11.5 
13.4 


9 
34 
22 

27 


29.5129.5 
25.0133.0 


See  note  to  Table  91. 


366 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  93 

Showing  the  -percentages  of  defects  found  in  the  school  children  of 
seven  counties  of  Virginia  (Orange,  Loudoun,  Albemarle,  Washing- 
ton, York,  Warwick,  Alexandria)  and  in  the  cities  of  Charlottesville 
and  Bristol,  1915.    Percentages  defective  of  those  examined. 


Defects  and  Diseases 


Counties 

i 

Cities 

-o 

. 

T3 

.~4 

O 

O 

o 

o 

43 

o 

H 

J3 

o 

£ 

O 

£ 

D 

o 

H 


Defects  of  the  eyes 

Defects  of  the  ears 

Defects  of  the  teeth 

Defects  of  the  glands 

Defects  of  the  thyroid 

Defects  of  the  tonsils 

Adenoids 

Malnutrition 

Having  had  whooping  cough 

Having  had  measles 

Having  had  chicken-pox 

Having  had  mumps 


23.7 

23.0 

23.0 

14.0 

8.0 

4.6 

2.3 

3.4 

1.5 

.8 

66.5 

56.5 

62.5 

63.0 

62.5 

33.5 

47.0 

40.0 

67.5 

73.0 

10.0 

15.0 

12.5 

8.7 

10.5 

46.3 

53.0 

50.0 

70.0 

60.0 

33.5 

42.0 

37.5 

44.5 

41.5 

15.0 

14.5 

15.0 

5.5 

7.0 

65.0 

49.5 

58.0 

74.5 

60.5 

48.0 

33.0 

41.0 

74.5 

45.0 

36.0 

24.0 

30.0 

58.5 

39.0 

37.0 

24.0 

31.0 

71.5 

34.0 

11.0 

1.1 

62.7 
70.0 

9.5 
65.0 
43.0 

6.3 
67. 
59. 
48. 
52. 


.5 

.7 

.5 

5 


Total  number  of  children  examined,  white,  14,803;  colored, 
4,728;  total,  19,531. 

Standard  of  defect  in  eyes — inability  to  read  the  twenty-foot  line 
on  the  Snellen's  Eye  Testing  Card  at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet. 

Standard  of  defect  in  ears — apparent  inability  to  hear  the  whis- 
pered voice,  testing  the  ears  separately,  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
feet. 

Standard  of  defect  in  teeth — cavities  only  considered. 


Statistical  Tables 


367 


TABLE  94 

Showing  for  fifty  counties  of  Virginia  the  percentages  of  children  of  school 
age  examined  having  hookworm  infection.  More  than  1,000  examined 
in  each  of  the  counties  considered  here. 


Percentage 
infected 

Number  of 

counties  in 

group 

COUNTIES 

1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
31-40 

41-50 

51-60 
61-70 

12 

10 

10 

9 

7 

2 

2 

Northampton     (1.2%),     Tazewell     (1.4%), 
Warwick  (2.7%),  Powhatan  (3.4%),  Fred- 
erick (3.5%),  Rappahannock  (4.7%), 
Greene    (6.4%),    Page    (6.8%),    Madison 
(7.0%),  Fluvanna  (7.6%),  Loudoun 
(7.9%),  Washington  (9.5%). 

Spotsylvania  (10.0%),  Cumberland  (11.9%), 
Rockingham    (11.9%),    Amherst    (12.5%), 
Amelia  (13.9%),  Northumberland  (14.1%) 
Surry    (18.1%),   Augusta    (18.2%),   Rock- 
bridge (19.0%),  Campbell  (19.7%). 

Orange    (20.4%),    Scott    (21.5%),    Bedford 
(22.7%),    Charlotte     (23.5%),    Albemarle 
(25.1%),  Prince  Edward  (25.5%),  Middle- 
sex    (25.7%),     Nelson     (26.4%),     Sussex 
(28.4%),  Buckingham   (28.7%). 

Appomattox     (30.1%),     Caroline     (34.9%), 
Mecklenburg  (35.2%),  Richmond  (35.2%), 
Lunenburg  (35.9%),  Louisa  (36.9%),  Hali- 
fax   (37.3%),    Pittsylvania    (37.3%),    Lee 

(38.5%). 

Franklin    (42.8%),    Southampton    (43.3%), 
Hanover     (43.8%),     Dickenson     (46.5%), 
Wise  (48.6%),  Brunswick  (48.7%),  Henry 
(49.3%). 

Essex  (55.4%),  Westmoreland  (55.6%). 

Greensville  (66.5%),  Patrick  (66.6%). 

Table  compiled  from  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  1914. 


368 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  95 

Showing  the  ratio  between  the  amounts  received  from  State  Funds  (at 
the  rate  of  $3,086  -per  negro  child  of  ages  seven  to  eighteen)  and  the 
total  amount  paid  for  colored  teachers'  salaries  in  1917-18  for  counties 
and  cities  of  Virginia  having  ,over  twenty-five  per  cent  colored 
population6. 


Per  cent  that  total  col- 
ored teachers'  salaries 
is  of  the  amount 
received     from     State 
Funds.1 

Thirty-two  counties  in 
each' of  which  the 
Negro"*  population     is 
from*  50%   to   75%   of 
the  total  population.2 

Thirty-one  counties  in 
each  of  which  the 
Negro     population     is 
from   25%   to   50%   of 
the  total  population.3 

Ten    cities    in   each    of 
which  the  Negro  popu- 
lation is  from  25%  to 
50%  of  the  total  popu- 
lation.4 

25-  30 

1 

31-  35 

36-40 

4 
1 
2 
4 
3 
6 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 

* 

41-  45 

1 
2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
4 
3 

46-  50 

51-  55 

56-  60 

61-  65 

66-  70 

71-  75 

1 

76-  80 

81-  85 

86-  90 

91-  95 

96-100 

2 
6 

1 

101-125 

126-150 

2 

151-175 

3 

176-200 

1 

Over  200. . . 

4 

For  all 

64.8% 
61.6% 

77.2% 
72.0% 

234.1% 
167.1% 

Medians 

1  When  the  ratio  is  100%  it  means  that  the  total  amount  expended  for  the  salaries  of 
colored  teachers  is  equal  to  the  amount  which  the  county  or  city  receives  from  State  funds 
for  each  colored  child  of  ages  seven  to  nineteen.  When  under  100%  it  means  that  the  county 
or  city  spends  for  all  of  colored  teachers'  salaries  less  than  the  amount  received  from  the 
State.  When  over  100%  it  means  that  the  county  or  city  spends  from  local  funds  the 
amount  over  100%. 

2  This  group  of  counties  contains  42%  of  the  entire  colored  school  population  of  the 
State. 

*  This  group  of  counties  contains  29%  of  the  entire  colored  school  population  of  the 
State. 

*  This  group  of  cities  (plus  the  city  of  Hampton  which  provides  no  colored  schools) 
contains  15%  of  the  entire  colored  school  population  of  the  State. 

*  These  counties  and  cities  contain  all  but  14%  of  the  entire  colored  school  population 
of  the  State. 


Statistical  Tables 


369 


TABLE  96 

Showing  previous  teaching  experience  of  the  eighty-six  Division  Super- 
intendents of  schools  in  Virginia. 


NUMBER  DIVISION  SUPERINTENDENTS 

Number  years' 
teaching  experience 

12 

0 

1 

1 

8 

2 

2  .                     

3 

6 

4 

4..                 

5 

20. .                                                   

6-10 

17 

11-15 

16..                                               

16-34 

370 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


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Statistical  Tables 


371 


TABLE  98 

Comparing  conditions  in  one-room  or  two-room  non-city  schools,  larger 
schools  of  the  non-city  type,  and  city  schools  in  certain  respects. 

Figures  for  1916-17 


Rural 

one  and 

two 

room 
schools 


Rural 
schools 
of  more 

than 
two 

rooms 


All 

city 

schools 


Number  of  schools  in  each  group 

Per  cent    of  schools  in  each  group 

Per  cent  of  non-city  schools  in  each  group. . 
Number  of  white  pupils  enrolled  in  each 

group 

Number  of  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  each 

group 

Number  of  pupils  of  both  races  enrolled 

Per  cent   of  white  pupils  enrolled  in  each 

group 

Per  cent   of  colored  pupils  enrolled  in  each 

group 

Per  cent  of  pupils  of  both  races  enrolled. .  . . 
Number  of  white  teachers  employed  in  each 

group 

Number   of   colored   teachers   employed   in 

each  group 

Number  of  teachers  of  both  races  employed 
Per  cent  of  white  teachers  employed  in  each 

group 

Per  cent    of  colored  teachers  employed  in 

each  group 

Per  cent  of  teachers  of  both  races  employed 
Average  number  of  days  in  the  school  term 

— white 

Average  number  of  days  in  the  school  term 

— colored 

Average  number  of  days  in  the  school  term 

—both 

Pupils  per  teacher  in  white  schools 

Pupils  per  teacher  in  colored  schools 

Pupils  per  teacher  in  schools  of  both  races.. . 
Average  annual  salary  of  teachers — white. . . 
Average  annual  salary  of  teachers — colored 
Average    annual    salary    of    teachers — both 

races 

Expenditure  per  pupil  for  teaching — white.. . 
Expenditure  per  pupil  for  teaching — colored. 
Expenditure   per   pupil    for    teaching — both 


races. 


5,592 
82.8 
85.6 

943 
13.9 
14.4 

157,192 

129,773 

95,052 
252,244 

15,019 
144,792 

44.4 

36.6 

69.1 
51.3 

10.9 
29.4 

4,664 

4,018 

2,035 
6,699 

282 
4,300 

43.2 

37.2 

69.9 
48.9 

9.7 
31.4 

125 

165 

116 

154 

122 

34 

47 

38 

$245.00 

167.00 

165 

32 

53 

34 

$432.00 

225.00 

222.00 
7.28 
3.38 

421.00 

13.41 

4.79 

5.89 

12.51 

215 
3.3 


67,266 

27,469 
94,735 

19.0 

20.0 
19.3 

2,116 

594 
2,710 

19.6 

20.4 
19.7 

177 

176 

177 

a 
a 
a 
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a 

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a 
a 


Table  compiled  from  data  given  on  page  141  of  the  Report  of  the 
(Virginia)  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1916-17,  and  from  the 
extended  summaries  published  in  that  volume. 

o    The  inclusion  of  high-school  figures  forbid  comparison  here. 


372 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  99 

Showing  the  numbers  of  counties  and  of  non-city  districts  having  various 
numbers  of  wagons  used  to  transport  school  children  in  1916-17. 


Number  of  wa  gons 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Eight 

or 
over 

Number  of  counties 

Number  of  districts 

43 

361 

14 
59 

6 
36 

5 
20 

4 
12 

10 
3 

5 
3 

1 
1 

12 
2 

TABLE  100 

Showing  the  character  of  high  schools  and  high  school  enrolments  in  1917-18 


Classification 

Number  of  schools 

Enrolments 

of  Schools 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

First  Grade 

Second  Grade 

Third  Grade 

Having  one  high- 
school  grade .... 

204 
176 
160 

87 

23 

8 
4 

3 

227 
184 
164 

90 

10,938 
4,265 
2,376 

616 

9,704 
352 

478 

169 

20,642 
4,617 

2,854 

785 

Total 

627 

38 

665 

18,195 

10,703 

28.898 

Table  compiled  from  figures  presented  on  pages  79-82  of  the  Report  of 
the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18. 


Statistical  Tables 


373 


TABLE  101 

Showing  the  distribution  of  high  school  pupils  by  grades  in  1917-18 


Number 

Per  cent 

Grades 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

Counties 

Cities 

Total 

I 

II 

Ill 

IV 

8,025 
5,199 
3,260 
1,884 

3,919 
3,031 
2,262 
1,513 

11,944 
8,230 
5,522 
3,397 

43.7 

28.3 
17.7 
10.3 

36.6 
28.3 
21.1 
14.1 

41.2 
27.7 
19.2 
11.9 

Total... 

18,368 

10,725 

29,093 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

TABLE  102 

Showing  for  one  hundred  white  schools  of  each  type  in  1918-19  the  average 
size  of  classes  in  grades  five,  six,  and  seven  in  the  elementary  school  and 
grades  first  and  second  of  the  high  school  in  one-room,  two-room,  and 
three-room  non-city  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 


Elementary 
school 

High 

school 

Grades 

5 

6 

7 

I 

II 

One-room  schools,  average  size  of  classes 
Two-room  schools,  average  size  of  classes 
Three-room  schools, average  size  of  classes 

3.4 
6.0 
9.5 

2.8 
5.1 
7.6 

2.2 
4.2 
6.7 

6.4 

3.4 

374 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  103 

Showing  the  relative  size  of  non-city  high  schools  for 
white  children  in  1918-19 


Number  of  high  schools  of  various 

classes 

Number  of 
Pupils  Enrolled 

Four-year 
high  schools 

Three-year 
high  schools 

Two-year 
high  schools 

Total  high 
schools 

Under  15 

3 

4 

4 

13 

13 

17 

22 

21 

35 

24 

8 

4 

26 

18 

32 

21 

11 

7 

7 

4 

4 

1 

103 
'       45 
11 
6 
5 
1 
2 

132 

15-  19 

67 

20-  24 

47 

25-  29 

40 

30-34 

29 

35-  39 . .           

25 

40-44 

31 

45-  49 

25 

50-74 

1 

40 

75-  99 

25 

100-124 

8 

Over  124 

4 

Total 

168 

131 

174 

473 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  on  State  Department  Form  H.  S. 
No.  7. 


Statistical  Tables 


375 


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380 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  109 

Showing  fads  concerning  character  of  buildings  and  size  of  grounds,  1917 


Number 


Percentages 


>> 

>> 

+2 

-u 

•  ■H 

■  »H 

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o 

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o 

fc 

o 
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Number  of  buildings  in  State. . 

Number  of  brick  or  stone 
buildings 

Number  of  frame  buildings.  . . . 

Number  of  log  buildings 

Number  with  a  half  acre  or  less 
ground 

Number  with  more  than  one- 
half  acre  and  less  than  one 
acre 

Number  with  from  one  to  two 
acres  grounds 

Number  with  two  acres  or  more 
of  grounds 

Number  having  three  rooms  or 
more 

Number  having  two  rooms 

Number  having  one  room 

Number  of  rooms  in  all 


215 

159 

56 

0 

77 


74 

40 

24 

181 

21 

13 

1,791 


6,535 

302 

6,057 

176 

1,053 


1,055 

3,258 

1,169 

943 

1,150 

4,442 

11,427 


6,750 

461 

6,113 

176 

1,130 


1,129 

3,298 

1,193 

1,124 

1,171 

4,455 

13,218 


74 

26 

0 

36 


34 

19 

11 

84 

10 

6 


5 

92 

3 

16 


16 
50 

18 

15 

17 

68 


7 

91 

2 

17 


17 

48 

18 

17 
17 
66 


Statistical  Tables 


381 


TABLE  110 

Showing  the  results  of  applying  the  Strayer  score  card  for  city  school 
buildings  to  104  school  houses  for  white  children  in  eighteen  cities 


CITIES  AND  BUILDINGS 


aj 

til 

73 

6 

a 

«  a 

o 
o 

u 

T3    CD 

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■  — 

3 

>  to 

gg 

c3 

o  o 

—  - 

W 

— 

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o 

02 

Maximum 
possible 


125    165    280    290 


140 


o 


1,000 


Alexandria. 


Buena  Vista 

Charlottesville. 

Clifton  Forge. . 


Danville. 


Fredericksburg 
Harrisonburg. . 
Lynchburg 


Newport  News 


Norfolk. 


High  School 

Lee 

Washington 

West  End 

High  School 

.McGuffey 

Midway 

High  School 

Moody 

Moody  Annex 

.High  School 

Bellevue 

Rison  Park 

Robert  E.  Lee 

Stonewall  Jackson 

.High  School 

Riverside 

.High  School 

Waterman 

.High  School 

Bigger 

Floyd 

Frank  Rooney 

Guggenheimer-Millikan 

Kindergarten 

John  W.  Wvatt 

Miller  Park 

Miller  Park  Annex 

Monroe 

Rivermont 

White  Rock 

.High  School 

Bankhead-Magruder.  .  . 

George  Washington 

John  W.  Daniel 

Stonewall  Jackson 

Thomas  Jefferson 

.  Maury  High  School 


120 
115 
110 
125 
125 
125 
120 
115 
90 
95 
105 
123 
115 
100 
115 
85 
115 
125 
125 
110 
115 
105 
115 

115 

118 

120 

110 

108 

105 

125 

115 

95 

95 

90 

120 

95 

115 


165  260 
162  265 


144 
165 

97 
165 
126 
124 
144 
165 
162 
111 
155 
155 
165 

53 
158 
159 


141 


175 
225 
147 
255 
173 
185 
157 
235 
245 
195 
248 
252 
248 
117 
240 
260 


165  255 

170  270 

109  136 

131  215 


197 


101  173 

150  241 

160  255 

103  155 

143  220 

159  204 


145 
160 
125 
136 
158 
122 
141 


236 
254 
190 
173 
229 
190 
165 


165  259 


273 
262 
223 
260 
194 
278 
213 
240 
218 
276 
271 
200 
[281 
263 
!267 
145 
248 
|283 
[283 
280 
|213 
1 234 
234 

220 
274 
'281 
'200 
i275 
:276 
J268 
J268 
j238 
221 
246 
238 
266 
271 


45 
40 

30 
4 
55 
85 
20 
10 
30 
66 
33 
70 
62 
44 
50 
43 

100 
20 

130 
10 
20 
48 


76 
45 

10 
27 
20 
91 
15 
10 
42 
15 
18 
152 


863 
844 
652 
805 
563 
878 
717 
684 
619 
801 
849 
662 
869 
832 
839 
450 
804 
927 
848 
960 
583 
705 
735 

609 
859 
861 
568 
756 
771 
794 
888 
663 
635 
765 
685 
685 
962 


382 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  110— Continued. 

Showing  the  results  of  applying  the  Strayer  score  card  for  city  school 
buildings  to  104  school  houses  for  white  children  in  eighteen  cities 


CITIES  AND  BUILDINGS 


CD 

go 


a 


pq 


03 
Ci    S 

>    02 

oi  5? 

GO 


a 

o 
o 
s- 
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03 

03 
U 


03    rj 

o  S 

go 


Maximum 
possible 


125 


165   280 


290 


140 


Petersburg. 


Portsmouth. 


Radford . 


John  Marshall 

Samuel  Boush 

Robert  E.  Lee 

James  Monroe 

Thomas  Jefferson 

Henry  Clay 

Stonewall  Jackson 

John  Goode 

William  H.  Ruffner.... 

Patrick  Henry 

Walter  Herron  Taylor. 

James  Madison 

James  Madison  (Old).. 

James  Barron  Hope... . 

Robert  Gatewood 

George  Washington.. . . 
.High  School 

Duncan  M.  Brown 

A.  P.  Hill 

Stonewall  Jackson 

Stonewall  Jackson  Annex 

Robert  E.  Lee 

.New  High  School 

Old  High  School 

Green  Street 

Pinners  Point 

Ann  Street 

Jefferson  Street 

High  Street 

Glasgow  Street 

Elm  Avenue 

Cooke  Street 

Port  Norfolk  No.  1. .  . 

Port  Norfolk  No.  2. .  . 

Prentis  Park 

.High  School 

Westward 

Eastward 


105 

158 

221 

257 

86 

85 

143 

230 

259 

46 

105 

129 

216 

248 

53 

125 

148 

243 

230 

61 

105 

141 

212 

252 

38 

110 

153 

220 

262 

78 

115 

116 

204 

236 

18 

105 

116 

200 

268 

12 

110 

71 

143 

218 

21 

110 

145 

204 

239 

32 

120 

163 

255 

280 

83 

115 

162 

201 

245 

45 

115 

75 

182 

246 

15 

100 

155 

208 

259 

35 

115 

163 

220 

255 

41 

110 

133 

191 

245 

48 

115 

165 

275 

290 

135 

115 

165 

240 

279 

55 

125 

165 

245 

282 

60 

115 

165 

255 

283 

70 

115 

165 

250 

285 

35 

115 

165 

250 

285 

75 

115 

160 

250 

275 

140 

95 

142 

219 

277 

30 

95 

108 

145 

230 

18 

125 

153 

210 

275 

13 

120 

157 

225 

276 

23 

115 

157 

225 

276 

23 

90 

122 

129 

225 

12 

115 

120 

105 

229 

5 

125 

116 

116 

243 

15 

112 

128 

119 

252 

10 

115 

127 

208 

267 

23 

125 

140 

123 

231 

20 

113 

139 

162 

262 

20 

85 

135 

185 

235 

35 

100 

148 

170 

207 

50 

90 

135 

158 

175 

25 

Statistical  Tables 


383 


TABLE  110— Continued. 

Showing  the  results  of  applying  the  Strayer  score  card  for  city  school 
buildings  to  104  school  houses  for  white  children  in  eighteen  cities 


CITIES  AND  BUILDINGS 


00 

fcC 

m 

£ 

a 

0  s 

0 
0 

(1 

1-4  00 

-3 

0   oj 

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•  1—1 
3 

>  m 

0  00 

§ 

0  0 

OQ 

— 

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d 

OQ 

Maximum 
possible 


125 


165 


280    290 


140 


— 
O 

H 


1,000 


Richmond John  Marshall  High 

School 

Binford  Junior  High 
School 

Barton  Heights 

Highland  Park 

Randolph 

Ginter  Park 

Chimborazo 

Fairmount 

Bellevue  Junior  High 
School 

William  F.  Fox 

John  B.  Cary 

Roanoke Intermediate 

Jamieson 

Commerce  Street 

Park 

Belmont 

Monroe 

Melrose 

Gilmer  Avenue 

West  End 

Crystal  Springs 

High  School 

Staunton R.  E.  Lee  High  School. . 

■     Stonewall  Jackson 

Thomas  Jefferson 

Suffolk Jefferson  High  School.  .  . 

Randolph 

Mason 

Winchester John  Kerr 

John  Kerr  Annex 


125 

165 

268 

277 

120 

125 

165 

270 

283 

100 

120 

121 

174 

215 

62 

125 

165 

255 

270 

80 

115 

160 

197 

209 

62 

125 

165 

265 

254 

76 

105 

159 

192 

230 

57 

105 

142 

238 

245 

41 

125 

165 

275 

280 

88 

125 

165 

262 

283 

60 

125 

165 

262 

285 

60 

110 

165 

265 

282 

125 

125 

165 

245 

272 

40 

120 

133 

168 

242 

20 

105 

150 

208 

235 

26 

105 

114 

173 

199 

24 

115 

165 

245 

270 

40 

105 

131 

190 

229 

28 

100 

112 

143 

220 

17 

115 

131 

205 

235 

10 

105 

96 

165 

243 

85 

131 

188 

242 

76 

110 

157 

235 

285 

40 

100 

145 

268 

280 

30 

125 

165 

245 

282 

45 

125 

155 

190 

285 

60 

115 

145 

196 

265 

20 

115 

142 

191 

265 

20 

105 

129 

194 

217 

20 

95 

88 

139 

171 



955 

943 
692 
895 
743 
915 
743 
771 

933 
895 
897 
947 
847 
683 
724 
615 
835 
683 
592 
696 
609 
722 
827 
823 
862 
815 
741 
733 
665 
493 


384 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  111 

Showing  the  results  of  applying  the  Strayer  score  card  for  city  school 
buildings  to  thirty-eight  colored  school  houses  in  fourteen  cities 


CITIES  AND  BUILDINGS 


03 

bb 

03 

s 

a 

QJ     S 

o 

o 

03 
03 

03 

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o 

go 

Maximum 
possible 


125 

165 

280 

290 

140 

Alexandria 

Charlottesville. 
Danville 


Fredericksburg. 
Harrisonburg. . 
Lynchburg 


.  Hollowell 

.Jefferson 

.Arlington 

Monticello 

New  Westmoreland. 

Old  Westmoreland.. 


Newport  News. 
Norfolk 


Petersburg. . 
Portsmouth . 


Richmond. 


Roanoke. 


Staunton. 
Suffolk... 


Effinger 

Armstrong 

Jackson  High  School .... 

Payne 

Polk  Street 

Yoder 

John  Marshall 

B.  T.  Washington 

Abraham  Lincoln 

J.  J.  Smallwood 

Jno.  T.  West.. 

Jos.  Chas.  Price 

Jno.  H.  Smythe 

Lott  Carey 

S.  C.  Armstrong 

B.  T.  Washington  High 

School 

Eastward 

Brighton 

Chestnut  Street 

Mt.  Hermon 

.Armstrong  High  School . 

Baker 

Buchanan 

Moore 

Navy  Hill 

.Gainsboro 

Gregory 

Harrison 

.B.  T.  Washington 

D.  W.  Davis 

.Washington 


95 
110 

85 

85 

90 

90 

60 
125. 
110 

92 
115 
100 
115 

95 

85 
120 

95 
105 
100 
115 
123 

90 

105 

90 

108 

85 

92 

105 

115 

120 

95 

115 

90 

105 

110 

110 

110 

105 


107 
156 

97 
126 
121 
121 

53 
154 
150 
109 
118 

87 
165 
138 
118 
158 

46 
142 

91 
103 
141 

67 

90 
72 
117 
122 
117 
101 
113 
165 
146 
128 
114 
115 
160 
160 
160 
145 


120 
225 
124 

63 
101 

97 
105 
230 
180 
168 
130 
128 
192 
208 

97 
208 
119 
187 
140 
143 
152 
125 

160 
121 
100 
125 
81 
166 
248 
245 
263 
157 
160 
152 
250 
172 
172 
155 


201 
234 
182 
227 
229 
190 
125 
229 
270 
209 
197 
177 
268 
249 
235 
245 
192 
225 
202 
183 
213 
188 


131 

91 

181 

223 

5 

190 

7 

210 

15 

163 

23 

222 

25 

277 

53 

222 

30 

211 

36 

228 

20 

215 

30 

268 

40 

266 

20 

266 

20 

250 

23 

5 
30 

5 
28 
30 


32 


43 

50 

5 

53 

42 

9 

5 

28 

36 


Statistical  Tables 


385 


TABLE  112 

Showing  the   number   of  city   school   buildings   receiving   various   scores 

(Strayer  Scale),  1919 


White 

Colored 

SCORE 

Number 

Per  cent 

Number 

Per  cent 

900-1,000 

11 
30 
26 
24 
9 
2 

11.0 
29.0 
25.5 
23.5 
9.0 
2.0 

801-    900 

2 
11 

5 

14 

5 

1 

5  3 

701-    800 

28  9 

601-    700 

13  2 

501-    600 

36  8 

401-    500 

13  2 

301-    400 

2  6 

Totals 

102 

100.0 

38 

100.0 

TABLE  113 

Showing  the  number  of  school  districts,  the  number  of  district  school 
boards,  and  the  number  of  district  school  trustees  (non-city  districts 
only  considered). 


Number 

Having  each 

Having  in  all 

OF 

Counties 

Districts  and 

boards  in 

number 

Trustees  in 
number 

Districts  and 

boards  in 

number 

Trustees  in 
number 

1 

2 

6 

2 

6 

23 

3 

9 

69 

207 

28 

4 

12 

112 

336 

10 

5 

15 

50 

150 

15 

6 

18 

90 

270 

16 

7 

21 

112 

336 

3 

8 

24 

24 

72 

1 

9 

27 

9 

27 

3 

10 

30 

30 

90 

100 

2-10 

6-30 

498 

1,494 

386 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  114 

Showing  the  extent  to  which  provisions  of  existing  laws  are  met  or  neg- 
lected by  district  school  boards,  according  to  reports  by  the  division 
superintendents . 


DO  DISTRICT  SCHOOL  BOARDS- 


Yes 


Make  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  schools? 

Employ  and  dismiss  teachers? 

Suspend  and  expel  pupils? m 

Furnish  free  textbooks  to  indigent  children? 

Meet  regularly  at  fixed  intervals? 

Hold  patrons'  meetings? 

Annually  prepare  estimates  for  their  needs? 

Visit  the  schools? ■■■•■  •  •  •  ■ 

Record  in  minutes  authorization  for  all  payments  of  bills/. . . 
Indicate  on  each  warrant  the  specific  purpose  of  issuance?. . . 
Change  salary  contracts  only  with  written  approval  of  super 

intendent? • 

Observe  the  law  as  to  minimum  legal  average  attendance r. . . 

Have  the  clerks  keep  all  teachers'  registers? 

Enter  into  written  contracts  with  all  teachers  before  they 

begin  to  teach? • :  •  •  ■ 

Prepare,  publish,  and  post  an  annual  statement  according  to 

law? 


57 
91 
77 
91 
30 
11 
67 
81 
35 
35 

39 
32 
53 

70 


No 


34 
0 
14 
0 
61 
80 
24 
10 
56 
56 

54 

59 
38 

21 


78  13 


Statistical  Tables 


387 


TABLE  115 

Showing  the  Education  of  Division  Superintendents  {Counties 
and  Cities)  1918-19. 


EDUCATION 


College  graduates 

Attended  college  at  least  one  year,  non-graduates 

Normal  school  graduates 

One  or  more  years  of  high  school  education  only. . 

Education  less  than  high  school 

Not  reported 

Total 


66 

21 

2 

13 

2 
1 


105 


TABLE  116 

Showing  the  salaries  of  division  superintendents  (counties  only),  1918-19 


Salary 

Number 

Salary 

Number 

Salary 

Number 

Under  ....$900. 

$    900-$    999. 

1,000-  1,099. 

1,100-  1,199. 

1,200-  1,299. 

8 
4 

11 
4 

10 

$1,300-$1,399. 
1,400-  1,499. 
1,500-  1,599. 
1,600-  1,699. 
1,700-  1,799. 

5 

6 

10 

5 

2 

$1,800-$1,899. 
1,900-  1,999. 
2,000-  2,499. 
2,500-  2,999. 
3,000  or  more 

7 
5 
8 
1 
1 

388 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  117 

Showing  gross  receipts  for  the  school  year  ending  June  30,  1918 

(Cents  omitted)a 

RECEIPTS 


STATE  FUNDS 


Amount 


1  Balances  July  1,  1917 

2  Apportionment  No.  1  (1  mill  tax) 

3  Apportionment  No.  2  (special) 

4  One-and  Two-Room  School  Fund  (6) 

5  Rural  Graded  School  Fund  (6) 

6  High  School  Fundb 

7  Agricultural  School  Fund  (b ) 

8  Normal  Training  School  Fund(6) 

9  Summer  Normal  School  Fund(ft) 

10  Retired  Teachers'  Fund(c) 

11  Literary  Fund  Principal 

12  Literary  Fund  Income 

13  Appropriations  from  State  Department  (d) 

14  All  other  receipts 

Total  State  revenues 


LOCAL  FUNDS 


1 


76,138 

,816,000 

164,236 

200,000 

75,000 

100,000 

32,000 

20,000 

40,000 

66,483 

276,746 

106,749 

20,904 

16,229 


$3,010,485 


Amount 


1  Balances  county  and  district. . . . 

2  Balances  city 

3  County  levies 

4  Other  county  funds 

5  District  levies 

6  Other  district  funds 

7  City  levies 

8  Other  city  funds 

Total  local  revenues 

Total  of  State  and  local  funds 


814,560 

143,799 
1,187,270 

831,917 

1,681,559 

21,648 

2,042,278 

464,652 


$7, 187,683 


$10,198,168 


a    For  detailed  items,  see  Report  of  the  (Virginia)  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  pp.  62  ff . 

b    Appropriations  by  the  General  Assembly. 

c    State  appropriation,  $10,000;  deductions  from  teachers'  salaries, 
$53,210;  balance  interest,  etc. 

d    Of  expenses  of  State  Department,  $11,354  paid  out 
Literary  Fund,  balance  appropriations. 


of  income  of 


Statistical  Tables 


389 


TABLE  118 

Showing  disbursements  of  school  funds  for  school  year  ending  June  30,  1918 

DISBURSEMENTS 


EXPENSE 


Amount 


Per  cent 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 


General  control 

Instruction 

Operation  of  school  plants. . . . 
Maintenance  of  school  plants. 

Auxiliary  agencies 

Miscellaneous 

Permanent  outlay 

Other  payments 


Total  net  disbursements. 


285.316.99 
5,422,761.35 
629,450.04 
208,360.85 
147,224.42 
279,482.62 
1,140,631.15 
633,846.78 


$8,747,074.20 


3 

62 
7 
3 

2 

3 
13 

7 


100 


Increment  of  Literary  Fund. 

Delinquent  taxes 

Treasurers'  commissions 


S161.632.10 

87,454.32 

159,102.68 


Gross  disbursements. 


408,289.10 


$9,155,363.30 


390 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  119 

Showing  the  position  of  Virginia  with  respect   to   the  financial  support 

of  schools 


Expenditures  for  schools 

,,  1915-16 

STATES 

Per  capita  of 

total 

population 

Per  capita  of 

school 
population 

Per  pupil  in 

average  daily 

attendance 

United  States 

$6.28 
7.12 
7.72 
3.18 
3.30 
9.53 
3.33 

$23.87 
30.38 
30.28 
10.48 
10.64 
43.08 
10.97 

$41  72 

North  Atlantic  States. . . . 
North  Central  States 
South  Atlantic  States. . . . 
South  Central  States 
Western  States 

52.20 
48.64 
19.78 
21.32 
67.08 

Virginia 

21.53 

Position  of  Virginia .... 

39 

39 

41 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  on  pages  79-82  of  the  Report  of  the 
(U.  S.)  Commission  of  Education,  1917,  Vol.  II. 


Statistical  Tables 


391 


TABLE  120 

Shotting  the  number  of  counties  and  cities  expending  various  amounts  for 
instruction  per  pupil  enrolled  in  1917-18 


Amount  Expended  per 

Counties 

Cities 

Pupil  Enrolled, 
1917-18 

White 
schools 

Colored 
schools 

White 
schools 

Colored 
schools 

Under      $2  00 

1 

14 

25 

22 

14 

15 

3 

1 

1 

&  2  00-$  2  99 

3  00-    3  99 

4  00-    4  99 

1 

5  00-    5  99 

2 
6 
3 
6 
8 

14 
7 
9 

13 
6 

20 
4 
2 

2 

6  00-    6  99 

2 

7  00-    7  99 

3 

8  00-    8  99 

3 

9.00-    9.99 

1 

2 

10  00-  10  99 

3 

11  00-  11  99 

3 

12  00-  12  99 

1 
4 
1 
8 
3 
3 

1 

13  00-  13  99 

14  00-  14  99 

15  00-  19  99 

20  00-  24  99 

25  00-  27  81 

Median 

$12.76 

$4.19 

$17.71 

$8.55 

Table  compiled  from  data  given  in  pp.  106-108  of  the  Report  of  the 
(Virginia)  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1917-18,  which  see 
for  the  records  of  individual  counties  and  cities. 


392 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  121 

Showing  the  estimated  amount  of  money  needed  for  teachers'  salaries  in 
Virginia  on  the  basis  of  15,000  teachers  employed  (i.  e.,  one  teacher  to 
every  30-85  pupils  enrolled). 


Average 

Monthly 

Salary 


Average  annual  salary 
per  term  of 


Average  length  of  term 


Seven 
months 


Eight 
months 


$  40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
65 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 
95 
100 


Nine 
months 


Seven 
months 


Eight 
months 


$280 

$320 

$360 

315 

360 

405 

350 

400 

450 

385 

440 

495 

420 

480 

540 

455 

520 

585 

490 

560 

630 

525 

600 

675 

560 

640 

720 

595 

680 

765 

630 

720 

810 

665 

760 

855 

700 

800 

900 

4,200,000 
4,725,000 
5,250,000 
5,775,000 
6,300,000 
6,825,000 
7,350,000 
7,875,000 
8,400,000 
8,925,000 
9,450,000 
9,975,000 
10,500,000 


5  4,800,000 

5,400,000 

6,000,000 

6,600,000 

7,200,000 

7,800,000 

8,400,000 

9,000,000 

9,600,000 

10,200,000 

10,800,000 

11,400,000 

12.000,000 


Nine 
months 


$  5,400,000 

6,075,000 

6,750,000 

7,425,000 

8,100,000 

8,775,000 

9,450,000 

10,125,000 

10,800,000 

11,475,000 

12,150,000 

12,825,000 

13,500,000 


TABLE  122 

Showing  the  estimated  amount  of  money  needed  for  instructional  purposes 
on  the  basis  (a)  of  825,000  pupils,  and  (b)  of  350,000  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance. 


RATE  PER  PUPIL 

325,000  pupils 

350,000  pupils 

$15        

$4,875,000 
6,500,000 
8,125,000 
9,750,000 

10,375,000 

$5,250,000 

20.         

7,000,000 

25.       

8,750,000 

30         

10,500,000 

35           

12,250.000 

Statistical  Tables 


393 


TABLE  123 

homing  for  each  county  and  city  of  Virginia  in  1917-18  (a)  certain 
assessed  valuations,  (b)  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  enrolled,  (c)  pro- 
portions of  all  funds  and  of  instructional  funds  received  from  the  State. 


COUNTIES 


o  a 

CO    Ctf 
00  — 

ors 

oo   rv 
<   C    • 
1=3^7 

GO  "^ 

o  »  o 


Pi 


>  S 


C  <| 

a  « 
a  o 

IB 

GO— J 

02    ;_ 
Co 

O   °   O 

o 

3s* 


a<- 

o  o 

-1-2  „ 

3  0) 

>  ° 

~  CJ 

o 
r.  — 

GQ  »^h 

o>  a. 

CO  3 

3ft 


I 

& 

O 

s-  - 

"*oo 

—  — < 

m  — h 

+i    - 

03   >> 

—  -u 

CO    «-i 
O    0) 


Cost  of  instruction 
per  pupil 


o 

"o 
O 


2  ' 

■13 

co  c3 

CM 

3 


km 

—  s"2 

o  o  a 

«->  o 

«~.i5 

-^      -^ 

ST3  3 

"3 

-»3 

o 
H 

Per  c 
ceive 
Instr 

Accomac 

Albemarle 

Alexandria 

Alleghany 

Amelia 

Amherst 

Appomattox 

Augusta 

Bath 

Bedford 

Bland 

Botetourt 

Brunswick 

Buchanan 

Buckingham. .  . 

Campbell 

Caroline 

Carroll 

Charles  City. . . 

Charlotte 

Chesterfield... . 

Clarke 

Craig 

Culpeper 

Cumberland 

Dickenson 

Dinwiddie 

Elizabeth  City. 

Essex 

Fairfax 

Fauquier 

Floyd 

Fluvanna 

Franklin 


$    869 

29.0 

$1,144 

10.89 

1.95 

42 

1,001 

30.1 

1,062 

13.67 

6.10 

41 

2,924 

31.5 

3,854 

14.10 

25 

1,407 

35.3 

2,093 

13.75 

6.12 

28 

640 

33.2 

1,059 

14.67 

3.56 

58 

558 

34.2 

1,038 

10.37 

3.37 

52 

670 

35.7 

1,228 

11.96 

2.87 

54 

1,567 

32.3 

2,300 

11.68 

6.35 

30 

2,129 

35.6 

2,920 

15.51 

6.07 

25 

671 

33.1 

1,212 

9.93 

5.27 

48 

1,681 

20.7 

2,065 

8.70 

6.25 

41 

802 

36.5 

1,582 

10.88 

6.28 

39 

851 

57.9 

1,308 

16.43 

2.49 

41 

1,126 

33.9 

1,267 

6.61 

43 

600 

48.2 

873 

13.22 

3.56 

57 

952 

21.9 

1,694 

12.59 

3.99 

40 

639 

50.8 

1,133 

13.56 

4.48 

51 

196 

12.5 

528 

6.37 

3.47 

54 

1,209 

31.5 

1,624 

26.92 

4.57 

43 

839 

50.0 

1,406 

14.81 

3.14 

47 

2,111 

36.2 

3,020 

13.09 

6.51 

31 

2,025 

26.7 

3,017 

10.86 

7.48 

37 

1,088 

16.5 

1,474 

13.18 

43 

1,257 

36.8 

1,949 

14.39 

5.22 

38 

651 

48.2 

986 

18.79 

4.01 

60 

1,063 

22.3 

1,278 

6.76 

42 

856 

41.7 

1,737 

18.08 

2.98 

37 

1,913 

41.8 

2,870 

11.63 

3.70 

31 

661 

33.7 

883 

13.56 

2.46 

55 

1,499 

37.9 

2,301 

13.29 

6.44 

41 

1,979 

39.7 

2,942 

16.28 

5.06 

37 

278 

18.5 

413 

6.36 

5.69 

63 

584 

19.0 

1,292 

12.93 

4.10 

50 

351 

27.1 

536 

6.34 

4.12 

65 

63 
53 
46 
41 
66 
69 
72 
46 
40 
58 
63 
50 
54 
80 
67 
59 
68 
76 
65 
66 
53 
42 
43 
63 
77 
62 
54 
56 
76 
58 
53 
77 
62 
80 


1    Includes  all  real  estate,  personal  tangible  property,  and  personal 
tangible  property  of  corporations  (except  rolling  stock  of  railroads,  etc.). 


394 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  123— Continued 

Showing  for  each  county  and  city  of  Virginia  in  1917-18  (a)  certain 
assessed  valuations,  (b)  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  enrolled,  (c)  pro- 
portions of  all  funds  and  of  instructional  funds  re  ceived  from  the  State. 


COUNTIES 


0  c 

CD    CD 
TO 

1  I?00 

«-  I-H 

*§2 

TO"- 

~-i   g   CD 

°*  r3  -^ 
o  «  o 

ft-  >  »- 


a  « 

TO 
TO— 3 

CD  n 

TO  CD 
TO  hi 
o3 

CD  2! 

c32 


+3 

c 
o 
« 


45   03 


c 

< — i 

o 

0 

•  H 

«J 

S3 

Tl 

3 

0 

ifl 

— i 

► 

0 
H 

"C 

e 

CD 

:. 

on 

m 

CD 

a 

00 

uu 
-3 

— 

I 

o 

a.  • 
oo 

— .  >-H 

c£ 
§2 

CD      - 

a,; 


93 


e3   >> 

TO    In 

CD    CD 


Cost  of  instruction 
per  pupil 


J3 


-a 

CD 
- 

o 
O 


03 
O 

H 


CD 

03 
-w 
GO 


Sis 
o  a 
>-  o 


CD 

CD    " 

■S  s 

CD    - 

OH 


Frederick 

Giles 

Gloucester 

Goochland 

Grayson 

Greene 

Greensville 

Halifax 

Hanover 

Henrico 

Henry 

Highland 

Isle  of  Wight. . . 

James  City 

King  and  Queen.. 

King  George 

King  William .... 

Lancaster 

Lee 

Loudoun 

Louisa 

Lunenburg 

Madison 

Mathews 

Mecklenburg 

Middlesex 

Montgomery 

Nansemond 

Nelson 

New  Kent 

Norfolk 

Northampton. . . 
Northumberland 
Nottoway 


$1,298  | 

26.1 

$1,873 

9.52 

6.33 

40 

58 

603 

25.2 

1,411 

10.42 

7.10 

38 

52 

654 

33.8 

870 

12.82 

4.83 

46 

69 

855 

44.8 

1,592 

14.87 

4.20 

49 

63 

320 

19.1 

412 

6-.  51 

69 

87 

615 

40.9 

906 

8.65 

4.18 

63 

77 

1,005 

35.0 

1,917 

16.23 

4.14 

45 

71 

677 

38.9 

1,030 

12.45 

3.12 

50 

68 

965 

50.6 

1,661 

12.90 

4.73 

39 

58 

3,230 

28.0 

4,127 

17.54 

8.54 

23 

34 

492 

35.5 

751 

10.33 

3.22 

56 

67 

2,080 

43.5 

2,537 

13.18 

6.30 

22 

37 

1,140 

43.8 

1,704 

16.43 

2.25 

40 

63 

1,740 

46.4 

3.029 

20.05 

2.61 

26 

53 

618 

37.7 

847 

17.00 

3.15 

56 

64 

921 

37.0 

1,213 

10.63 

6.22 

42 

77 

736 

27.7 

1,174 

17.52 

3.62 

54 

58 

705 

44.6 

1,052 

15.30 

3.44 

55 

68 

430 

27.4 

802 

7.91 

5.25 

55 

66 

2,074 

42.0 

2,944 

16.10 

5.38 

27 

40 

666 

37.1 

1,424 

13.80 

3.13 

49 

66 

750 

29.5 

1,237 

13.61 

2.68 

47 

62 

877 

31.0 

1,168 

11.97 

3.74 

52 

67 

670 

29.7 

939 

12.73 

3.87 

61 

85 

525 

31.5 

928 

12.16 

2.84 

48 

62 

708 

24.9 

987 

12.79 

4.90 

57 

66 

658 

22.9 

1,280 

8.81 

4.06 

43 

66 

715 

39.5 

1,572 

19.47 

3.37 

43 

64 

691 

26.7 

1,383 

11.27 

3.63 

47 

56 

980 

34.4 

1,848 

20.40 

3.68 

42 

62 

1,895 

42.3 

2,681 

18.85 

5.61 

28 

44 

1.006 

23.7 

1,718 

22.41 

3.30 

37 

48 

799 

35.0 

1,345 

12.90 

2.64 

45 

70 

853 

43.3 

1,460 

16.03 

4.19 

44 

41 

1     Includes  all  real  estate,  personal  tangible  property,   and  personal 
t  angible  property  of  corporations  (except  rolling  stock  of  railroads,  etc.). 


Statistical  Tables 


395 


TABLE  123— Continued 

Showing  for  each  county  and  city  of  Virginia  in  1917-18  (a)  certain 
assessed  valuations,  (b)  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  enrolled,  (c)  pro- 
portions of  all  funds  and  of  instructional  funds  received  from  the  State. 


Real  estate — Assessed 
valuation  per  pupil  en- 
rolled,  1917-18. 

Rate  of  assessment  in 
1914  on  real  estate — 
Per  cent. 

Assessed  valuation  per 
pupil  enrolled,  of  real 
estate,  personal  prop- 
erty, etc.,  1917-18. l 

Cost  of  instruction 
per  pupil 

i  1 

to  oS 
15  02 

COUNTIES 

o5 

-d 

U 

_o 
"o 
O 

03 

o 
H 

P.  ^ 
P 

S"o3 
'sop 

°   fc.   O 

P              ° 

a3l3   P 

„  uu 

•  !h    m 
a5  &  G 

.°    CM 
P-4 

Orange 

$1,417 

750 

266 

582 

1,109 

857 

2,273 

1,242 

1,219 

875 

1,216 

658 

1,307 

1,382 

1,550 

590 

231 

1,080 

637 

750 

1,027 

680 

830 

1,143 

761 

813 

2,195 

541 

666 

833 

950 

871 

41.5 

27.4 

29.3 

32.6 

36.2 

44.7 

42.9 

28.3 

36.3 

23.1 

33.9 

50.3 

30.1 

36.3 

39.7 

17.2 

26.0 

30.9 

24.4 

42.9 

41.7 

25.2 

57.2 

56.4 

21.2 

32.4 

56.0 

29.2 

50.2 

29.7 

29.9 

32.0 

§2,158 

1,250 

398 

873 

1,640 

1,310 

2,761 

1,795 

2,053 

1,328 

1,773 

1,011 

1,843 

2,040 

2,078 

931 

486 

1,617 

934 

1,323 

1,529 

1,375 

1,254 

2,016 

1,141 

1,338 

4,234 

874 

971 

1,146 

1,465 

1,293 

17.72 

9.61 

5.25 

7.57 

11.80 

21.64 

14.83 

15.92 

13.68 

9.58 

13.00 

10.61 

10.52 

11.87 

9.91 

7.82 

5.20 

10.47 

10.09 

19.20 

10.32 

8.81 

18.08 

25.38 

9.09 

8.77 

17.14 

9.45 

10.76 

8.35 

9.76 

10.53 

4.13 
3.95 
2.04 
2.29 
4.27 
4.37 
3.78 
3.03 
5.46 
5.19 
4.51 
3.67 
7.26 
5.82 
6.12 
5.96 
3.00 
4.62 
6.60 
3.25 
4.66 
6.67 
2.58 
3.23 
9.20 
6.67 
4.08 
5.64 
4.63 
5.64 
4.69 
5.27 

38 

47 

55 

50 

53 

46 

23 

40 

36 

37 

42 

57 

35 

41 

30 

48 

56 

38 

39 

33 

53 

45 

42 

37 

35 

45 

28 

46 

53 

42 

42 

45 

51 

Page 

65 

Patrick 

76 

Pittsylvania 

Powhatan 

Prince  Edward.. . 
Prince  George — 
Princess  Anne...  . 
Prince  William. . . 
Pulaski '. . . . . 

72 
82 
59 
31 
50 
49 
54 

Rappahannock. . . 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

58 
79 
51 

Rockbridge 

Rockingham 

Russell 

54 
49 
62 

Scott 

80 

Shenandoah 

Smyth 

50 
50 

Southampton..     . 

Spotsylvania 

Stafford 

55 
64 
64 

Surry 

61 

Sussex 

54 

Tazewell 

48 

Warren 

60 

Warwick 

71 

Washington 

Westmoreland 

Wise 

57 
68 
47 

Wythe 

55 

York 

77 

All  counties — 

S946 

33.5 

$1,449 

$12.69 

$4.18 

43 

58 

1     Includes  all  real  estate,  personal  tangible  property,  and  personal 
tangible  property  of  corporations  (except  rolling  stock  of  railroads,  etc.). 


396 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  123— Continued. 

Showing  for  each  county  and  city  of  Virginia  in  1917-18  (a)  certain 
assessed  valuations,  (b)  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  enrolled,  (c)  pro- 
portions of  all  funds  and  of  instructional  funds  received  from  the  State. 


CITIES 

Real  estate — Assessed 
valuation  per  pupil  en- 
rolled, 1917-18. 

Rate    of  assessment  in 
1914    on  real  estate— 
Per  cent. 

Assessed  valuation  per 
pupil  enrolled,  of  real 
estate,  personal   prop- 
erty, etc.,  1917-19. » 

Cost  of  instruction 
per  pupil 

.S               O               03 

^          O          H 

Per   cent   of    funds    re- 
ceived from   State — 
Instructional. 

Alexandria 

Bristol 

Buena  Vista 

Charlottesville.. . 

Clifton  Forge 

Danville 

Fredericksburg.. . 
Hampton 

$2,392 
2,323 
1,240 
2,104 
1,467 
2,775 
2,145 

51.8 
47.2 
59.9 
49.2 
46.6 
63.8 
76.5 

$2,883 
2,656 
1,671 
2,559 
2,289 
3,234 
2,531 

14.37 
18.06 

12.37 
13.65 
17.71 
16.73 
13.08 
13.70 
15.79 

10.21 

8.18 
11.38 

4.27 
10.23 

8.81 

7.40 

11.09 

32 
20 
25 
32 
31 
19 
32 
32 
17 

40 
26 
30 
40 
24 
28 
36 
27 

Harrisonburg. . .  . 
Hopewell 

1,806 

2,240 

19 

Lynchburg 

Newport  News. . . 

Norfolk 

Petersburg 

Portsmouth 

Radford 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Staunton 

Suffolk 

Winchester 

3,734 
2,289 
4,182 
2,440 
1,833 
1,534 
3,961 
2,429 
3,105 
2,104 
2,087 
2,604 

56.2 
70.2 
51.3 
62.9 
46.7 
59.7 
54.8 
48.8 
47.2 
47.4 
69.9 
44.9 

4,430 
2,933 
4,975 
2,897 
2,271 
1,986 
4,551 
3,359 
3,750 
2,756 
2,613 
3,053 

25.99 
17.96 
27.81 
20.03 
18.46 
9.15 
26.63 
16.73 
18.85 
21.38 
24.03 
13.02 

9.75 

9.77 

12.31 

6.53 

6.61 

5.80 

10.55 

11.14 

8.28 

7.16 

5.58 

7.89 

16 
19 
13 
18 
23 
29 
12 
21 
10 
18 
31 
23 

19 

20 
18 
24 
26 
37 
16 
20 
42 
26 
26 
26 

S3, 189 

53.1 

$3,794 

$17.69 

21 

20 

State 

$1,407 

$1,931 

44 

1    Includes  all  real  estate,  personal  tangible  property,  and  personal 
tangible  property  of  corporations  (except  rolling  stock  of  railroads,  etc.) . 


Statistical  Tables 


397 


TABLE  124 

Showing  certain  facts  concerning  schools  in  Virginia  by  counties  and  cities 


COUNTIES 


Length 
of  term 
in  days 


T3 
O 

O 


Per  cent    of 
enrolment 
in  average 

daily 
attendance 


J3 


t-. 

"o 
U 


Number 

of  pupils 

enrolled 

per  teacher 

employed 


-a 

s-. 

_o 
"o 
U 


Average 

annual 

salaries  of 

teachers 


45 


T3 

a; 

- 

"o 
O 


Accomac 

Albemarle 

Alexandria 

Alleghany. 

Amelia 

Amherst 

Appomattox. . . . 

Augusta 

Bath 

Bedford 

Bland 

Botetourt 

Brunswick 

Buchanan 

Buckingham. .  . 

Campbell 

Caroline 

Carroll 

Charles  City. .  . 

Charlotte 

Chesterfield 

Clarke 

Craig 

Culpeper 

Cumberland 

Dickenson 

Dinwiddie 

Elizabeth  City. 

Essex 

Fairfax 

Fauquier 

Floyd 

Fluvanna 

Franklin 

Frederick 


176 

130 

146 

116 

200 

200 

154 

154 

146 

122 

130 

98 

146 

80 

138 

118 

140 

118 

146 

130 

126 

120 

134 

112 

156 

120 

120 

130 

120 

146 

108 

158 

122 

120 

100 

172 

128 

142 

110 

158 

138 

154 

142 

138 

154 

116 

158 

126 

126 

150 

106 

194 

166 

144 

118 

158 

138 

160 

126 

118 

108 

144 

114 

116 

114 

112 

120 

83 
60 
62 
77 
67 
64 
55 
66 
62 
53 
60 
64 
61 
70 
59 
61 
79 
65 
72 
62 
66 
71 
80 
60 
60 
71 
69 
72 
61 
69 
60 
62 
61 
56 
60 


75 

35 

87 

$376 

63 

26 

31 

362 

56 

40 

41 

558 

63 

35 

54 

487 

57 

24 

44 

349 

70 

27 

37 

286 

48 

27 

42 

317 

65 

27 

29 

320 

56 

22 

41 

347 

59 

32 

36 

320 

66 

30 

29 

261 

70 

27 

32 

304 

47 

26 

53 

421 

39 

260 

62 

22 

40 

300 

62 

30 

41 

379 

68 

27 

42 

352 

68 

39 

39 

249 

49 

17 

52 

458 

50 

26 

47 

404 

51 

29 

36 

385 

63 

31 

37 

337 

26 

351 

50 

25 

32 

360 

70 

20 

44 

377 

38 

259 

55 

21 

49 

377 

64 

44 

47 

520 

55 

24 

43 

330 

67 

31 

37 

408 

51 

27 

38 

447 

61 

33 

24 

210 

51 

22 

33 

283 

53 

51 

38 

213 

47 

27 

33 

260 

$170 
188 
411 
325 
158 
126 
120 
186 
249 
191 
181 
201 
132 

131 
165 
184 
137 
238 
142 
234 
280 
0 
184 
178 

146' 

217 

145 

239 

192 

169 

135 

157 

212 


398 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  124— Continued 
Shounng  certain  facts  concerning  schools  in  Virginia  by  counties  and  cities 


COUNTIES 

Length 
of  term 
in  days 

Per  cent    of 
enrolment 
in  average 

daily 
attendance 

Number 

of  pupils 

enrolled 

per  teacher 

employed 

Average 

annual 

salaries  of 

teachers 

73 

T3 

T3 

T3 

o 

<o 

93 

03 

© 

S3 

03 

03 

+a 

o 

-u 

O 

■*a 

O 

o 

2 

o 

J 

O 

3 

O 

A 

o 

£ 

O 

£ 

o 

£ 

o 

£ 

O 

Giles 

130 
156 

106 
134 

63 

73 

77 
60 

31 

26 

22 
44 

?319 
329 

S157 

Gloucester 

218 

Goochland 

146 

138 

61 

51 

21 

44 

310 

186 

Grayson 

122 
120 

100 
100 

73 
67 

76 
56 

33 

28 

43 
41 

217 
246 

126 

Greene 

171 

Greensville 

156 

118 

66 

52 

26 

48 

422 

198 

Halifax 

138 
158 
198 
130 
138 

116 
158 
198 
116 
122 

72 
61 
76 
54 
66 

68 
55 
71 
55 

58 

28 
36 
28 
31 
43 

48 
55 
37 
45 

28 

348 
347 
483 
322 
353 

150 

Hanover 

164 

Henrico 

313 

Henry  

144 

Highland 

173 

Isle  of  Wight 

168 

108 

72 

65 

28 

68 

459 

153 

James  City 

176 

104 

73 

58 

25 

40 

503 

142 

King  and  Queen.. 

164 

112 

70 

56 

20 

42 

346 

133 

King  George 

130 

138 

56 

48 

25 

40 

264 

250 

King  William .... 

158 

124 

63 

57 

22 

37 

377 

172 

Lancaster 

150 

120 

69 

59 

25 

43 

375 

165 

Lee 

128 
160 
148 
138 

140 
118 
104 

118 

53 
61 
55 
59 

70 
60 
49 
56 

44 
28 
20 
28 

32 
35 
36 
56 

349 
443 
275 

361 

168 

Loudoun 

188 

Louisa 

113 

Lunenburg 

150 

Madison 

136 

110 

65 

57 

26 

41 

307 

155 

Mathews 

156 

108 

66 

63 

35 

36 

320 

140 

Mecklenburg 

148 

116 

63 

48 

31 

57 

372 

163 

Middlesex 

164 

126 

78 

59 

25 

42 

393 

206 

Montgomery 

138 

120 

63 

68 

32 

41 

285 

167 

Nansemond 

178 

124 

70 

69 

24 

61 

465 

205 

Nelson 

136 
140 

96 
102 

54 
70 

63 
60 

26 
18 

37 

38 

278 
370 

136 

New  Kent 

140 

Norfolk 

184 
164 

168 
136 

71 

74 

62 
55 

31 
25 

56 

48 

593 
467 

313 

Nottoway 

188 

Northampton. .  .  . 

176 

136 

73 

45 

32 

97 

532 

221 

Northumberland 

150 

108 

67 

62 

34 

33 

365 

139 

Orange 

144 

100 

93 

63 

21 

36 

365 

146 

Page 

128 

100 

66 

64 

31 

36 

297 

142 

Statistical  Tables 


399 


TABLE  124— Continued 
Showing  certain  facts  concerning  schools  in  Virginia  by  counties  and  cities 


COUNTIES 


Length 
of  term 
in  days 


Per  cent  of 
enrolment 
in  average 

daily 
attendance 


Number 

of  pupils 

enrolled 

per  teacher 

employed 


Average 

annual 

salaries  of 

teachers 


<x> 

-a 


T3 

•73 

-d 

O 

o 

+» 

U 

O 

o 
u 

o 

-|3 

o 

^i 

o 

J3 

o 

43 

O 

S 

O 

£ 

O 

£ 

T5 
JO 

"o 
O 


Patrick 

Pittsylvania. . . . 

Powhatan 

Prince  Edward. . 
Prince  George.. . 
Princess  Anne... 
Prince  William.. 

Pulaski 

Rappahannock. . 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Rockbridge 

Rockingham 

Russell 

Scott 

Shenandoah 

Smyth 

Southampton 

Spotsylvania. . . . 

Stafford 

Surry 

Sussex 

Tazewell 

Warren 

Warwick 

Washington 

Westmoreland... 

Wise 

Wythe 

York 

Average  counties 


112 

102 

64 

50 

46 

54 

$243 

128 

104 

55 

61 

38 

49 

260 

124 

122 

67 

62 

21 

39 

250 

158 

122 

68 

56 

23 

45 

489 

188 

124 

67 

45 

33 

62 

502 

168 

142 

74 

64 

29 

66 

461 

156 

138 

64 

65 

28 

38 

389 

144 

120 

61 

59 

37 

40 

358 

142 

106 

58 

74 

25 

38 

321  ; 

142 

122 

65 

62 

27 

48 

286 

158 

136 

67 

60 

37 

35 

389 

146 

138 

66 

71 

27 

36 

324 

132 

118 

66 

51 

29 

32 

288 

130 

116 

59 

63 

47 

38 

370 

148 

120 

73 

64 

67 

80 

352 

144 

64 

66 

60 

30 

21 

317 

158 

134 

65 

73 

37 

32 

375 

168 

120 

61 

46 

24 

56 

465 

130 

98 

64 

50 

24 

34 

251 

120 

122 

59 

54 

27 

32 

235 

162 

114 

75 

54 

24 

60 

435 

178 

140 

67 

45 

19 

64 

504 

164 

154 

61 

70 

42 

42 

378 

134 

120 

64 

62 

30 

26 

264 

178 

124 

72 

59 

30 

48 

508 

144 

126 

64 

76 

36 

29 

326 

142 

120 

69 

70 

29 

45 

315 

158 

150 

55 

66 

52 

51 

434 

148 

114 

67 

59 

33 

38 

326 

154 

136 

66 

45 

32 

45 

340 

144 

122 

64 

58 

31 

45 

$349 

$107 
112 
168 
195 
177 
201 
123 
210 
171 
175 
252 
212 
198 
229 
240 
99 
209 
183 
159 
211 
155 
208 
390 
174 
197 
166 
207 
287 
175 
239 

$183 


400 


The  Public  Schools  of  Virginia 


TABLE  124— Continued 


CITIES 


Length 
of  term 
in  days 


Per  cent  of 

enrolment 

in  average 

daily 

attendance 


Number 

of  pupils 

enrolled 

per  teacher 

employed 


Average 

annual 

salaries  of 

teachers 


T3 

-d 

-d 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

o 

+s 

o 

-^ 

o 

43 

o 

A 

o 

-C 

o 

A 

O 

£ 

O 

£ 

O 

Is 

T3 
© 

(-i 

"o 
Q 


Alexandria 

Bristol 

Buena  Vista — 
Charlottesville. 
Clifton  Forge... 

Danville 

Fredericksburg 

Hampton 

Harrisonburg.  . 

Lynchburg 

Newport  News. 

Norfolk 

Petersburg 

Portsmouth. . . . 

Radford 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Staunton 

Suffolk 

Williamsburg... 
Winchester 

Average  cities.. 
Average  State.. 


180 
174 
180 
178 
180 
178 
180 
182 
174 
182 
180 
200 
176 
188 
180 
170 
176 
172 
180 
180 
200 


188 
174 
130 
182 
180 
174 
180 


154 
182 
178 
200 
174 
188 
140 
174 
142 
172 
180 
180 
200 


180 
150 


180 
134 


80 
79 
67 
74 
85 
80 
83 
77 
75 
83 
75 
89 
80 
81 
79 
71 
78 
80 
89 
71 
84 


77 
67 


80 
65 
66 
64 
75 
80 
78 


69 
82 
54 
87 
78 
79 
73 
73 
68 
73 
88 
65 
73 


79 
62 


48 
33 
41 
36 
30 
37 
53 
41 
38 
35 
38 
30 
36 
43 
51 
29 
60 
36 
30 
29 
46 


38 
32 


47 
47 
36 
69 
36 
41 
50 


31 
53 
55 
40 
69 
58 
42 
45 
60 
46 
48 
57 
50 


48 
45 


$687 
604 
502 
496 
558 
658 
691 
556 
594 
900 
676 
822 
729 
798 
469 
764 
658 
681 
563 
707 
611 


$734 


$481 
383 
404 
297 
366 
364 
374 
0 
354 
579 
540 
488 
449 
420 
244 
475 
434 
376 
327 
315 
400 


$461 


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